Population Explosion and Soil Erosion

Population Explosion and Soil Erosion

Kathleen Schneider

Table of Contents
Introduction
Narrative
Overview of Earth Systems
Pedosphere
Properties of Soil
Ecosystems
Human Impact
Conclusion
Lesson Plan #1: Introduction to Soils
Lesson Plan #2: Student Field Trip to Coronado Monument
Lesson Plan #3: Student Field Trip to Elena Gallegos
Lesson Plan #4: Student Field Trip to Rio Grand Nature Center
Lesson Plan #5: Plant an outdoor study area on school grounds to attract wildlife
Lesson Plan #6: Test Soil Textures
Lesson Plan #7: Test Soil Particle Sizes
Lesson Plan #8: The Great Land Public Meeting
Assessment
Notes
Bibliography
Teacher's Reading List
Student Reading List
Teacher Material List
Glossary

Introduction

The primary goal of teaching is to prepare students for the decision-making responsibilities of this country and of the Earth. A goal of science in middle school is to develop a holistic understanding of our living dynamic planet. It is important for middle school students to understand that humans control the growth around them and that they are responsible for the care of the environment. Humans have control or impact in many other ways. They decide how much land and food is allocated for the other species of the planet. Our technology has brought us many wonderful things but in the meantime it has brought us awesome responsibilities. (1)

This curriculum has been designed for my family of 8^th grade students from Cleveland Middle School in the Northeast Heights in Albuquerque, NM. The staff at our school values students and we have overcome many obstacles together. We have restructured the school so that teams of teachers have core classes with the same students (60 instead of 150 per day), forming families which give every student a place to belong. The students that belong to the family I teach in (two regular education teachers and one gifted teacher) are marked by diversity in learning styles, ability (from behavior disordered and special need to gifted and everything in between), life experiences, and economic status. Our student population is usually about forty percent Anglo and the other sixty percent come from Hispanic, Native American, Afro-American, Asian, and Middle Eastern cultures. One third of the population at the school is on free or reduced lunch.

Our students are from middle class single-family dwellings interspersed with apartment complexes along major streets. The landscaping in this area ranges from bluegrass and plant life from the eastern part of the United States to yards with rock and gravel with native plants. Many of the students are indifferent to the environment as they see no effect of it on their daily life. Also, our neighborhoods are completely built up so they do not see the effect of growth on our area.

This curriculum unit will introduce/reacquaint the students with the challenges that urbanization is bringing to our land; locally, in our country, and globally. The students will gather, organize, record and apply data about soils from the Elena Gallegos area, the Rio Grande Nature Center, the Coronado State Park and their neighborhoods. In their groups they will formulate questions and draw conclusions about what urbanization has done to the soils in their neighborhood. They will then be given a hypothetical situation to study, collect information for and prepare for a "public meeting." The students will be divided into special interest groups including estate property owners, the "greenies" (a local environmental watchdog group), a local Native American tribe, a developer, and the city economic development committee. They will argue their point orally and in a paper to be handed in.

As part of their Service Learning component the students will redesign and improve an area of the school to create an outdoor study area to attract wildlife and birds. They can take the skills they have learned and create a micro nature center at their school.

This curriculum is designed to meet the learning styles of all students as it has components from "The Seven Types of Intelligences" of Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences. They include linguistic, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, musical, interpersonal and intrapersonal.(2)

At the conclusion of this unit the students will understand the impact of growth and urbanization on the pedosphere sub-system of Earth.

Narrative

Overview of Earth Systems

Newly recognized environmental issues have created the need for new disciplines and combinations of established disciplines in science, such as geochemistry and environmental geoscience. The need for these new studies is the realization of how the Earth’s sub-systems interact with one another to create one single system. There need to be scientists who can traverse within different traditional scientific boundaries, because environmental issues do not come in a neat package. (3)

The Gaia hypothesis (named for the Greek goddess of the Earth) is the name given to this way of thinking from scientists James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis. It is believed that all the living animals and plants on Earth have an influence on what happens to the physical Earth. In turn, it is believed that the living things on Earth serve as a control to balance global temperatures and other characteristics of the planet. Think of our planet with no trees. What would happen to the temperature? So, the Earth and the living things on the Earth are in a delicate "checks and balance" situation that we, the caretakers of the Earth, must be constantly aware of.(4)

The five sub-systems that Earth system scientists look at include the lithosphere (the crust of the Earth), the pedosphere (the broken down rock and organic matter that becomes soil), the hydrosphere (water), the biosphere (living and nonliving matter) and the atmosphere (includes the hydrosphere, pedosphere, biosphere). (5)

Pedosphere

The pedosphere takes in all of the decomposed organic matter and broken down rock that covers all of the land surface of the Earth. It has a very important role as it is considered the membrane of the Earth, doing much of the same function as a membrane in an egg that holds the yolk together. Scientists refer to this as the geomembrane. It can measure from one meter to about 200 meters thick and starts on the soil where we place our feet every day. It has a very important function as it connects and moves mass and energy to and from the hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Gases, solid matter and ions move up from the lithosphere and feed the pedosphere with nutrients that benefit the biosphere. (6)

Weathering

Rock and minerals decompose in the pedosphere sub-system by the process called weathering. There are three types of weathering: physical, chemical and biological. Weathering, which can take tens of thousands of years to break down the matter, turns the rocks into soil that gives the living things of the Earth elements needed for life. Weathering is an important process in the formation of soil. (7)

Physical Weathering

There are many ways physical weathering can take place. Rocks can be buried under other material and if that material is taken away, as in erosion, the underlying rock that has been under so much pressure is released and the rock fractures.

Forest and range fires can cause thermal expansion where the fire is so hot that it peels thin layers of rocks apart. The result is called thermal weathering.

When water settles in crevices of rocks and freezes, the frost expands and causes the rocks to break up. This is called frost weathering.

Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering is reaction between the minerals in the rocks and water, oxygen and ions in the biosphere, hydrosphere and the atmosphere. Through the chemical process the minerals and rocks break down and decompose.(8)

Most chemical weather is caused by water. Some rocks break down easily in water because they are soluble. Gases from the atmosphere when combined with water can become acids that can break down rocks.

When oxygen combines with the rocks, the process of oxidation takes place and an entirely new substance is formed. For instance iron in rocks combines with oxygen to form iron oxide or rust. (9) That is where the red rocks of our area are created.

Water, combined with carbon dioxide, creates carbonic acid. When this reacts with rocks it causes carbonation. This sinks into the pedosphere and dissolves the rocks on and below the surface. (10)

A byproduct of industry in certain areas is sulfurous gas. When combined with water, the chemical formed is sulfuric acid. If this water is taken up into the clouds as part of the water cycle, when it returns to the Earth it is called acid rain. This is highly acidic and has strong corrosive properties that weaken rock and minerals quickly.(11)

Plants, such as lichens and mosses, can cause chemical weathering because they make weak acids that disintegrate the minerals in the rocks. (12)

Biological weathering

Living matter can cause rocks to break apart and decompose. Plant roots, especially trees, can break down and disaggregate rock material. An example is what we see trees do to sidewalks in town. They have the ability to move pavement and break up cement.

Animals that live underground can cause biological weathering. Moles, prairie dogs, birds, insects and most of all worms can cause the breakdown of rocks in the pedosphere. (13)

Properties of Soils

It can take from several hundred to a thousand years to make one inch of soil. The weathering of the rocks, the breaking down of the organic matter, and climate, which includes rain and temperature, all contribute to the building of soil on the pedosphere.

Soil Profile

Soil is defined by Earth scientists as an internally organized, natural body of weathered minerals and organic material arranged in soil horizons. These horizons are parallel to the Earth's surface. The soil profile is the sequence of the soil horizons in a vertical arrangement. The chemical compositions differ greatly between moist, dry and wet climates of soil profiles, but they do have the characteristics of soil horizons structure in common. The top soil horizon, the one we walk on, is called O horizon. It holds the dead plant and animal litter. The next layer down is the A horizon which is commonly called topsoil. The B horizon is the next layer down. They are mineral rich and vary in colors from blues to browns. The last layer is the C horizon that has fractured and weathered parent material or bedrock.(15)

Soil Forming

Soils differ greatly from climate to climate however, all soils have five distinct soil-forming factors in common which are: climate, relief of the ground surface, nature and composition of parent material, the amount of time which the soil has formed, and the amount and types of living matter. (16)

Of all of these, climate may be the most important factor. The amount of water from rain and snowfall affects the speed of the weathering process for the movement and removal of material through the soil profile. Temperature, especially high temperatures, speed up chemical weathering reactions. (17)

Soil formation also comes from the lithosphere, which adds mineral matter up from the rock and sediment. Stored in these minerals are elements that are essential for living organisms to sustain life.

The weathering processes mentioned earlier change primary minerals to secondary minerals. This releases ions from the minerals that are absorbed into the water in the soil so that they are available to living organisms.

New soils begin in many ways from different new rock material such as lava or volcanic material, or deposits of sand and gravel from glaciers or intrusive igneous rocks that are pushed to the surface by mountain-building activity. (19)

The hydrosphere transfers solids and dissolved materials throughout the soil horizons and takes ions out of the soil profiles. The ions are then washed into the groundwater that then sends the ions into streams.

The organic matter from the biosphere enters the soil as decaying organic matter, or litter, which is dead plants and animals. As the material decays it releases carbon dioxide gas, most of which is released into the atmosphere. The nutrients released by the decay are used by living soil organisms and plants.

All of these processes go on simultaneously to build soil and it is a long process, something that must be thought of in geologic time, not human time.

Ecosystems

Earlier it was discussed that Earth system scientists look at different sub-systems as a part of the whole. The ecosystem is another part of that network of systems that all work into the Earth system. According to Molles, "an ecosystem is a biological community plus all of the abiotic factors influencing that community." (20)

During the building of soil, the ecosystem is building also. Each organism prepares the area for the next organism until it reaches a point where the organisms are very sophisticated and complex. This is called succession.

Primary Succession

There are three stages to primary succession. The first stage is the pioneer stage where there is bare, solid rock. The name comes from the fact that the organisms are the first to colonize the bare rock. Lichens are the "colonists" for this stage. Their growth is slow for it may take a hundred years for a lichen to grow to the size of a dinner plate. As the lichen breaks down the rock, a thin layer of soil begins to form. (21)

This layer of soil is important to the next stage of the process which is called the intermediate stage. This is where small plants, insects, worms and bacteria can start to develop and the lichens disappear.

From here the soils keep building and new plants and animals appear and they are more complex and live longer. The more soil that is formed, the larger the root systems of the plants and thus the larger the animals that can be supported and sheltered by that system. This is what is called the climax stage. (22)

The process of the community moving from one stage to another is called a seral or successional stage. The whole process, from pioneer to climax, is referred to as a sere.

A climax community can be identified by the following characteristics: it can reproduce itself, it has as much material and energy coming in as going out, it has a large variety of organisms, and they interact with one another. (23)

Secondary Succession

Sometimes a community suffers from some sort of cataclysm, such as a forest fire or flood. When the community starts to build back up it is called secondary succession. It has to go through the same process as primary succession but usually does not have to start with the bare rock stage and it is able to come back quicker. (25)

Human Impact

Before this was an urban society humans as far back as the hunters and gatherers were keenly observant of nature and any changes that took place. They knew the habits of the animal they hunted for food and where to find plants for eating and medicines. Farmers all over the world have been and are aware of what the best soils are and what kinds of weather will affect their crops and livestock. (24)

Since we are so much an urban society, those of us who live in one are perhaps indifferent to what goes on in nature. As our world grows smaller it is more important to be aware of our relationship with other species and the environment. Our species is rapidly changing the Earth's environment and we must educate ourselves to try to understand the consequences of our actions. A soil that has taken tens of thousands of years to develop can be wiped out in a day with a bulldozer. Contamination of our water system can happen with the leaching into the groundwater deposits from some forgotten underground gasoline tank.

We must become more aware of the human impact factor in the area around us. The ecosystem is a delicate balance and yet we bury it under concrete. There has to be some long term effect we are not aware of yet, because the hard part is that we look at time through human time, not geologic time. The impact of what we have done to our Earth may not be known for a long time or it may be in a few years. Albuquerque has recently found out there was an abandoned dry cleaning establishment in downtown years ago where the dry-cleaning solvents were never properly disposed of and are now leaching into our soil under the downtown area. The solvent is in close proximity to many of the city's drinking water wells and this could cause a problem in the not too distant future. The owner and the heirs of the dry cleaner are all deceased so the taxpayers somehow will take over the burden of this.

Conclusion

The pedosphere, which we depend on for our food, our outdoor recreation, our daily life, is a delicate living and non-living sub-system of the larger Earth system. It takes years beyond many lifetimes to build up soils but not long at all to destroy them. Education and awareness into this process is important for our daily life and those that follow us.

Lesson Plans

Lesson Plan #1: Introduction to Soils

Objective: The students will understand what the curriculum that they will be working on for the next few weeks will consist of .

Purpose: To introduce the soils unit to the students.

Introduction: The teacher will play Grofe's Grande Canyon Suite while presenting a slide show of local geological sites, including those that will be in the proposed field trip.

Instruction: The teacher will, through lecture and a handout of the assessment, explain to the students the purpose, the labs, field trips and cumulating activity of the soils unit.

Evaluation: The teacher will keep a log on daily participation points for each student and each student will turn in a journal that contains all of the above information. The journal will have daily entries in narrative form and the students will be required to keep the following sections in their notebook: daily journal entries, vocabulary, lab sheets, field trip notes and sketches, notes and paper on the Great Land Public Meeting, and assessment sheet.

Materials Needed: paper binder with brads that hold three hole notebook paper, three hole notebook paper, pencils, three hole index dividers

Lesson Plan #2: Student Field Trip to Coronado Monument/Kuaua Pueblo*

*Coronado State Monument/Kuaua Pueblo in Bernalillo, New Mexico - Coronado was an early Spanish explorer who, with his troops, visited the area but did not stay at this particular pueblo. Archeologists have never found Spanish artifacts at this site. They have been found further south at an area that until recently was a dairy. This site is state propety and has rangers on site. I call ahead and make reservations for our large group. I also always do a complete run-through of this and any field trip I plan. I also always bring a cell phone.

Objective: To visit an archeological site of the Kuaua Pueblo discuss why the people abandoned the site.

Purpose: The Kuaua Pueblo site was abandoned about 500 years ago. After a tour of the site the students will discuss what was used by the people, what was a renewable resource and what was a finite resource.

Introduction: The students will visit the Kuaua Pueblo site and create theories as to why the people left, what happened to their environment after overuse.

Instruction: The teachers and the students will travel by bus to the site and divide up into three groups of twenty students. One set will sit by the Rio Grande River and draw the Sandia Mountains (which are to the east of the site) and the plant life that is visible from the mountains down to the river. The next set will take a walking tour of the ruins of the Kuaua Pueblo, remembering that nothing is allowed to be disturbed. The third set of students will sit in another area and have a discussion as to what the people would of used on a day today basis to sustain life. The groups would rotate through each assignment. The teacher will ask permission of the ranger to take a few soil sample for testing in the classroom

Evaluation: The students will have entries in their folder for the above assignment which will include sketches, journal entries on tour of the Pueblo and discussion on what happened to the people.

Materials Needed: field trip permission form, water, lunch, sunscreen, insect repellent, suitable clothing and footwear, a hat, lined notebook and plain paper for journal entries, colored pencils, pencils, baggies for soil samples, marker to label samples

Lesson Plan #3: Student Field Trip to Elena Gallegos Open Space, Pino Abayment**

**Elena Gallegos was a woman whose family was given this land as a grant from the King of Spain when this area was New Spain back in the 1500's. It was donated to the City of Albuquerque as an Open Space area. This area has rangers assigned to it and I call ahead to let them know a large group is coming. The hike is on marked and then unmarked trail. A run-through is necessary to find a good site, one that is safe to get in and out of , but with a good horizon.

Objective: To observe a primary succession community in the climax stage.

Purpose: The students will discover an area at the foot of the Sandia Mountains that has had time to build soil undisturbed for tens of thousands of years.

Introduction: The students will be able to observe and study an area that shows what the Albuquerque area looked like, including plant life, before humans altered the landscape.

Instruction: The students will be shown an outcrop that was dug out by water and is in an arroyo that has a soil horizon of about three meters. Assigned students will be able to take samples back to the classroom for testing. Students will be asked to draw the soil horizon and on the terrace, draw the plant life.

Evaluation: The students will have entries in their notebook for the above assignments

Lesson Plan #4: Student Field Trip to Rio Grande Nature Center***

***The Rio Grande Nature Center is handicapped-accessible with some reservations and a great place to take people of all ages. I call ahead and make reservations with the ranger. As with the other sites I would do a run-through.

Objective: To see an ecosystem in its intermediate stage of secondary succession.

Purpose: The students will observe an area that has been undisturbed for fifty years.

Introduction: The students will observe the Rio Grande and the riparian forest in the surrounding bosque. This area had been flooded on a regular basis by the Rio Grande River until fifty years ago. A huge dam was built upriver at Cochiti Pueblo and there has been no flooding since. This has given the area all of this time to build up soil. So the students will be able to observe how much soil can be developed in that time period.

Instruction: The students will be divided up into three groups. One group will taken on a mapped hike which is provided by the nature center. Sometime a volunteer is available to guide the hike or the map is clear enough for the hike to be self-guided. The second group will be in the Nature Center building which has many activities for the students to do. The third group will be taken to a site where the teacher will use a knife and dig up one site to show the depth of the soil horizon. A ruler can be used to show the depth of the new soil. A minimum of soil will be taken for a sample and then the soil will be put back as found.

Evaluation: Students will draw sketches of a interesting area or object during the hike and at the Nature Center. Students will record in their journal findings observed in the soil sample dig.

Lesson Plan #5: Design and plant a native plant outdoor study area on school grounds

Objective: The students will plant a native plant outdoor study area on the school grounds to attract wildlife and birds.

Purpose: The students will have an active part in creating an ecosystem that will have a positive effect on their school campus and they will be learning about how to repair an ecosystem in a small way. This two-fold purpose is Service Learning, community service and real, hands-on learning.

Introduction: The teacher and students (with the approval of the administration) will do an investigation of the school grounds to find an appropriate site for a micro nature center. The teacher will invite a master gardener as a guest speaker to explain what can be done, give suggestions and to be a resource.

Instruction: The students will divide up into teams, research and keep clear notes in a journal to be turned in on the following: find out what kind of soil is in the plot, measure the plot and create a scale drawing, investigate what kind of native plants do the best with minimal care, plan how to build up the soil (if needed) to help the plants survive better, what kind of wildlife and birds will be attracted to the plant life, how much it will cost, what kind of tools will be required and how long will it take to plant. The teams will also search the Internet to find out about ways to get grants to pay for the project. ( Places to look will be under Service Learning, National Wildlife Federation under the Backyard Wildlife Habitat Program, U.S. Forest Service and local forestation programs.)

Evaluation: The teacher will keep a log on daily participation points for each student and each student will turn in a journal that contains all of the above information. The plot plan will be done on a plain white paper and attached. The rest of the journal entries will have daily entries in narrative form.

Materials Needed: paper binders with three hole brads and pockets, loose leaf notebook paper, pencils, measuring tapes, Internet access

Lesson Plan #6: Test Soil Textures

Objective: To use laboratory techniques to test materials from the field.

Purpose: to learn how to test soil samples in a laboratory setting

Introduction: The students will handle the soils collected to do a soil analysis

Instruction: The students will follow the instructions on the Soil Texture Chart Worksheet

Evaluation: The teacher will give participation points for students as they work in groups. The worksheet will be filled out in a timely manner and all information will be complete.

_______________________________________________________________

Name_______________________________Date_____________

With a piece of soil the size of a golfball do the following test and then record

Soil Texture Chart Worksheet

Soil Type	Soil Squeezed Dry	Soil Squeezed Moist
Sand	falls apart when pressure is released	forms a mold but crumbles when touched
Sandy Loam	forms a cast that will fall apart	forms a cast that can hold together with some care
Loam	forms a cast that can hold together with care	forms a cast that can hold together well
Silt Loam	forms a cast that can hold together well	forms a good cast but will give a broken appearance
Clay	breaks into hard lumps	sticky when moist

_____________________________________________________________________

	type of soil	color	other characteristics
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3

_____________________________________________________________________
Materials Needed: numbered soil samples, water, paper towels, worksheets, pencil

Lesson Plan #7: Test Soil Particle Sizes

Objective: To use laboratory techniques to test materials from the field.

Purpose: To find out the proportion of materials in the soils samples.

Introduction: The students will dry the materials and analyze the soil.

Instruction: The students will let the sample dry and then weigh the whole sample.Then the material will put in graduated sieves. As they shake the soil through they will have to carefully collect all of the material, sometimes using a brush to get all of the material out of the sieves. Each different sample will then be weighed and should add up to the original weight. The students then can do the math to figure out the percentage.

__________________________________________________________________

Soil Particle Worksheet

	Total weight	Sieve 1	Sieve 2	Sieve 3
Sample #1
	100%	%	%	%
Sample #2
	100%	%	%	%
Sample #3
	100%	%	%	%

____________________________________________________________________

Evaluation: The teacher will give participation points for students as they work in groups. The worksheet will be filled out in a timely manner and all information will be complete.

Materials Needed: numbered soil samples, wax paper. sieves, worksheet, calculator, pencil, scale

Lesson Plan #8: The Great Land Public Meeting

Objective: The students will put on a mock public meeting.

Purpose: The students will learn about political factions that can conflict over land use.

Introduction: The students will be divided up into different special groups and they will then be given a hypothetical situation to study, collect information for and prepare for a "public meeting."

Instruction: The students will be divided into special interest groups including estate property owners, the "greenies" (a local environmental watchdog group) , a local Native American tribe, a developer, and the city economic development committee. They will argue their points orally and in a 500-word paper to be handed in.

Evaluation: The students will be evaluated on how well they argue their points and how much research they were willing to do.

Materials Needed: Newspapers, Internet, interviews

Assessment

Population Explosion, Soil Erosion

Rubric (this sheet must be in the notebook)

Name_________________________ Date begun_______ Date Completed________

Assignment possible points earned points

Lesson #1: notes from lecture ___________ _________

Lesson #2: journal entry, sketches, discussion notes ___________ __________

Lesson #3: journal entry, sketches ___________ __________

Lesson #4: journal entry, sketches ___________ ___________

Lesson #5: journal entry, plot plan ___________ ___________

Lesson #6: soil texture test worksheet ___________ ___________

Lesson #7: soil article test ____________ ___________

Lesson #8: 500 word paper ____________ ___________

Vocabulary list ____________ ___________

Total Points ____________ ___________

(Teacher Note: I collect these and grade on a regular basis so that at the end of the unit the grading is manageable)

Teacher materials

Camera ( I have an inexpensive "point and shoot" 35mm that I use for my slide pictures, a digital camera would be really nice ), slide film, old knife, shoes, baggies, sharpie pens, backpack or hippack, a friend that is willing to go on run-throughs of the field trips, order busses early in the year after reservations are made (after getting the rate for the bus I divide it by the number of students)

Notes

Benchmarks
Gardner
Merrits, et al
IBID
IBID
IBID
IBID
Coble, et al
IBID
IBUD
IBID
IBID
Merrits, et al
IBID
IBID
IBID
IBID
Coble, et al
Merrits, et al
Molles
Enger, et al
IBID
IBID
Molles
Enger, et al
IBID

Bibliography

American Association for the Advancement of Science. 1993. Benchmarks for Science Literacy. Oxford University Press. New York
Colbe, Charles R., Murray, Elaine G., Rice, Dale R. 1987. Earth Science. Prentice-Hall. Englewood Cliffs, NJ
Enger, Eldon D., Smith, Bradley F. 1992. Environmental Science: A study of Interrelationships. Wm. C. Brown. Dubuque, IA
Gardner, Howard. 1993. Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. Basic Books. New York
Merritts, Dorothy, DeWet, Andrew, Menking, Kirsten. 1998. Environmental Geology. W.H. Freeman and Company. New York
Molles, Manuel C., 1999. Ecology. McGraw-Hill. Boston
Rosner, Hy and Joan, 1996. Albuquerque's Environmental Story. The City of Albuquerque. http://www.cabq.gov/aes/

Recommended Teacher's Reading List
Chronic, Halka. 1986. Roadside Geology of New Mexico. Mountain Press Publishing Co. Missoula, Montana
Logan, William Bryant. 1995. Dirt: the Ecstatic Skin of the Earth. Riverhead Books. New York
McPhee, John. 1983. In Suspect Terrain. Farrar, Straus, Giroux. New York
Rolston, Holmes. 1986. Philosophy Gone Wild: Essays in Environmental Ethics. Prometheus Books. Buffalo, New York
VanCleave, Janice. 1998. A+ Projects in Earth Science. John Wiley and Sons. New York
Wiggers, Raymond. 1993. The Amateur Geologist, Explorations and Investigations. Franklin Watts. New York

Recommended Student's Reading List
Barnes-Svarney, Patricia L. 1990. Clocks in the Rocks: Learning about Earth's Past. Enslow Publishers. Hillside, New Jersey
Baylor, Byrd. 1974. Everybody Needs a Rock. Scribner. New York
Baylor, Byrd. 1972. When Clay Sings. Scribner. New York
Catherall, Ed. 1991. Exploring Soil and Rocks. Steck-Vaughn. Austin, Texas
Seuss, Dr. 1971. The Lorax. Random House. New York
Van Rose, Susanna. 1994. Earth. Dorling Kindersley. New York.
Winckler, Suzanne and Rodgers, Mary M. 1994. Our Endangered Planet. Soil. Lerner Publications. Minneapolis, MN

Glossary
abiotic non-living components in the environment such as atmosphere, water, minerals, and sunlight
adaptation where an organism makes changes either structurally or physiologically to exist in changing conditions in its habitat
alien plant material native to one region but found in another
alluvial fan sediments built up in a fan-like shape, usually at the bottom of a steep slope as it opens on to a plain or valley floor
atmosphere gases that surround the Earth's surface, which includes the hydrosphere, biosphere, pedosphere to about ten thousand kilometers above the Earth
arroyo a Spanish word for gully
biosphere the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) matter that starts at the Earth's surface up to about ten kilometers
biotic living components in the environment, such as plants and animals
bosque Spanish word for wooded area near river
carbonic acid the combination of rain and carbon dioxide in the air
carbonation the process that takes place when matter reacts chemically with carbonic acid
clay microscopic mineral fragments or a sediment that has clay minerals in it
climate the long-term atmospheric and surface conditions of a particular region that include precipitation, temperature and wind
crust Earth's thinnest and least dense rock layer, it is rigid and made up of mostly oxygen and silicon
dirt another term for soil
disaggregate to break apart
ecology the study of the interrelationship between living and non-living things
energy the capacity for doing work
finite resources
Gaia hypothesis the hypothesis that the living components on Earth has an impact on the non-living, physical Earth and vice versa; named after the Greek goddess of the Earth and the mother of the Titans, sometimes spelled Gaea
geologic time the time from the formation of the Earth to the present: the Earth is believed to be about 4.6 billion years old
geology the study of the Earth's history, origin and structure
gully a channel, carved out by water, varying in size from a few meters deep and wide to hundreds of meters wide and can be kilometers long. They are usually dry except after a rain or snow melt
horizon a soil layer
humus organic material in soil which includes plant root, decaying plant and animal matter
human time the time humans have been on Earth and what we perceive as old, such as the Pyramids which are 5,000 years old
hydrosphere the layer of water around Earth's surface made up of surface water, groundwater, oceans, glaciers and water vapor
lithosphere the outermost layer that contains the rock system that begins near the top of the Earth's mantle and includes the crust
litter the uppermost layer of the pedosphere consisting of mostly decaying organic matter
mineral a naturally occurring inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and crystalline structure
outcrop a cutaway of soil so that the soil horizon can be observed. This is usally seen by a road cut or in an arroyo or gully
parent material the solid rock that begins the lithosphere
pedosphere the layer of decomposed organic matter and rock particles covering the Earth's surface; in Greek ped means soil
renewable resources resources that can be renewed as in crops
riparian forest near a river
rock a naturally formed, relatively hard mass of minerals
sand small grains of rock, up to 2mm in size
Service Learning community service with a direct connection to curriculum
soil the top layer of the Earth's surface, composed of clay, sand and humus
soluble matter that dissolves easily in water
succession predictable growth in an ecosystem community growing from bare rock to a climax community where living organisms live in a long-lasting, complex community
system a group of interrelated and interdependent objects
terrace a raised bank of earth having vertical or sloped sides
topography shape of the Earth's surface which includes elevations and structures, both natural and human made
weathering the breaking down of the Earth's surface from chemicals, wind, temperature change, plants, and animals