Debi Vigil's CU

Archeology and Native American Origins

Debi Vigil

Academic Setting

Zuni Magnet School is a magnet for communication and technology. Because of our magnet status, our population is diverse. This unit is planned for the pullout gifted program. This means that gifted students are “pulled” out of their regular classroom for approximately five hours a week to receive gifted services. The goal of this program is to challenge, extend, and enrich these students. Classes range from two to ten students, but six is my ideal number. Students are divided into classes by grade level. First and second graders are grouped together. This class grows and changes the most due to referrals and qualification for the program. I hope to use this curriculum with all five grade levels. Of course there will have to be some adaptations to accommodate the highest and lowest.

Unit Plan

Gifted students are taught utilizing eight strands or goal areas. These are:

Ų                   Self-understanding
Ų                   Interpersonal skills
Ų                   Thinking skills
Ų                   Creativity
Ų                   Interest development
Ų                   Communication
Ų                   Independence in learning
Ų                   Advanced knowledge

All of the strands of gifted education can be met with this one unit of study.

         What is anthropology? How do we find out about the past? How do we know what we know? Where did humans come from? How did they get here? How do these ancient peoples relate to the Native American peoples alive today? How can understanding the past help mankind in the future? These are just the very basic questions. Students will have many, many more. The purpose of this unit is to get students thinking and questioning. When given certain information, what conclusions can be drawn? Students will be expected to expand their knowledge of several careers and their methods of reasoning (specifically: anthropology, which includes four major fields – archeology being one of them, biology, geology, paleontology), and how that knowledge has helped us look into the past. Using the scientific method to investigate, students will experience hands on assignments such as gathering a team to explore an archeological excavation (teacher made), mapping the area, recording data, interpreting data, and finally drawing conclusions on their own site as well as considering the actual findings of scientists concerning Paleo-Indians. Students will also be expected to utilize technology to produce a documentary film. Extension activities might include a study of Native American culture, other career investigations, a museum could be designed and/or a lecture tour planned and carried out, and how climate affects people in the past, present, and future.

Context and Background

It is hoped that this unit of study will inspire students to further investigate the various fields of science, and gain a better understanding of how studying the past can tell us about the future. This is an extremely vast subject area. Students will just be given a basic introduction, and then encouraged to choose their own course of study in line with their interests. Here we will just be concerned with the introductory information.

It seems reasonable that in order to study the coming of humans to the new world, first there must be a basic understanding of human development and what methods are used to determine when humans arrived. Students will need to begin with a general knowledge of evolution, they will tryout firsthand some of the methods archeologist use, and interpret the data according to the scientific method. A main point to be emphasized here would be how important hypotheses are to the development of scientific study. Speculation and problem solving lead to discovery. There are a lot of questions.

What is Archeology and What Can We Learn From It?

What we have learned so far mostly comes from fossils. The study of bones and teeth tell us a lot about our biological history. Under special circumstances, there have been cases of skin and hair preserved. Fossils generally turn up near the earth’s surface, usually due to some change in the earth’s crust. Ancient lake sites, caves, and dry gullies are good places to look (Lambert 220-221). Fossil hunting is hard work. It takes a long time. Objects are usually not intact. There are no complete human skeletons earlier then those of the Neanderthals (except for “Lucy” who is 95% complete) because, as far as we know, they were the first to bury their dead. Archeologists are specialized detectives. They put pieces back together. When parts are missing, they speculate by using the pieces available or what they already know from other sources. Archeologists try to decipher the whole picture surrounding the fossils and artifacts they find using the clues. (Artifacts are objects made by humans.) Help comes from other specialists. For example, geologists can look at the surrounding rocks and strata to help determine a time period the object was found in. Botanists recognize bits of pollen that may help to tell if the object is still in its original resting place. Anthropologists have studied various human customs and may be able to make suggestions as to purpose or reasons for placement of certain objects. Archeologists want to know things like what people looked like, what they ate, how they got their food, what they wore, what they did, and what their customs and beliefs were (Maloney 8,20).

Archeologists specialize in time periods. We will be studying Paleolithic archeology, the time before the discovery of metals. Since this is so far back in time, oftentimes bones and stone tools are the only things left to study. This is not much information to go on to try and reconstruct a whole civilization. The gaps in evidence are huge and far between (Maloney 10).

          Most times, fossil remains and artifacts are buried below the surface and must be carefully excavated. The site is first mapped and marked off with meter sized squares using the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Grid System. This system grids the whole earth, measuring from the equator and the prime meridian (White 57). Each square is labeled with a number or a letter. Horizontal excavation takes away one layer at a time, allowing archeologists to study one particular period in time. Overall layout becomes apparent and patterns can be noted. It is the method used for sites that were occupied only a few times. Vertical excavation is used for sites that have several layers. Then squares or trenches are dug out. Each layer is drawn and all artifacts are recorded carefully. Slicing through time allows archeologists to see changes from one period to the next. If a site is very deep, it will be excavated in sloping step trenches to ensure that the sides don’t fall in. It is very rare for a site to be totally excavated. One reason is the expense, but another is to save some for later times when more advanced technology may be available (Maloney 18-19).

            Digging may begin with picks or shovels, then trowels or chisels, and finally dental probes and brushes (Lambert 224). The soil is saved in a bucket to be checked more thoroughly later. The location of each object is recorded carefully. Sometimes excavations uncover manmade holes. They may represent storage bins, trash heaps or fireplaces (hearths). Because they cannot be removed from the site, they are called features. While artifacts and remains are recovered, features are destroyed by excavation, so mapping and photographing each layer is especially important. Each object is numbered and placed in a bag for further study in the lab. The soil is sifted to be sure nothing was missed. Back at the site lab, everything is cleaned and sorted, then carefully wrapped to be sent to various off-site labs for further study. Soil is collected to check for the type as well as any organic matter such as seeds, pollen, and insects. Charcoal is useful in helping to provide dates for the site. Everyone at the site writes a report. These reports are then combined into a report that is published in a book or scientific journal. Other archeologists want to know about the findings as soon as possible (Maloney 19-21).

            How old is it? There are several methods used to determine how old something is. Typology…pollen dating…deep sea cores…deciding whether one object is older or younger than another is called relative dating. It can not pinpoint an exact time, but it is still extremely important to have things in chronological order. Comparing chemicals in one fossil with chemicals in other fossils of a known age is relative. Another way is Biostratigraphy which is to compare types of fossil plants or animals in different layers of rock. Usually the deeper it is buried the older it is. Scientists can cross reference data from different places to get information that may add to the whole picture. Changes in the flora and fauna are indicators of climatic change.

                 Absolute dating is much more accurate. These methods include dendrochronology (tree ring dating), radioactive carbon 14 dating, potassium-argon, and thermoluminescence (TL). There are two types, those measuring global fluctuations of the earth such as climate and magnetic field, and those measuring the radioactivity. Not everything is able to be dated, but the research continues on developing dating techniques.

                 Although each year adds a growth ring to a tree trunk, the growth varies with the climate. The growth rings of each tree of the same species in the same area in the same year are similar enough in order to make comparisons. Each ring represents one year of growth. Observation of several rings suggests clues to characteristics of a certain period in history. Information in certain regions for certain species has been verified, and can therefore be used as a reference point. For example, the records for the bristlecone pine in California go back to 8,000 years. At present, the research files have been compiled only to 9,000 years ago.

                 Radioactive elements occur naturally in different types of materials. These elements decay at a constant rate over time. Scientists are able to use this rate of decay to calculate age of an object. Different methods need to be used depending on the particular material. Carbon 14 (C-14) can date bones, wood, plants, and shells. All living things obtain C-14 through the food chain. Plants absorb the C-14 that is produced in the atmosphere. C-14 dating is accurate up to 50,000 years old. If an object is older than that, most of the radioactivity has disappeared.

                 Potassium-argon (K-ar) is used to date rocks. This rate of decay is extremely slow, so it can be used on volcanic rocks over 100,000 years old. Since it cannot be used on organic material, it is used to date the surrounding area in which the remains are found.

            Pottery also contains radioactive elements. When the pottery is fired, the radioactive elements are released and start over from zero. Pottery can then be heated to 500° C, making the radioactive elements escape as light energy called thermoluminescence (TL). The TL is measured and turned onto an age measurement. TL dating is accurate up to 80,000 years old. This method works on burnt flints also (Guilaine 21-30) (Maloney 22-27).

                 Obsidian is a rock that was often used for tools. When obsidian breaks, a layer of patina forms over it, and it gets thicker as it gets older. Measuring the thickness of this layer helps to date it. If an object has been reused in a later period, it can be detected (Guilaine 24).

                 Archeology uses three terms to write a date. AD represents the Latin words Anno Domini which means “In the year of our Lord” and begins with the year AD 1 to the present. BCE is considered the years before the Christian era. BP means before present time. Scientists use this often. Since present time is not stationary, scientists chose the year 1950 to be the reference point. So any years after 1950 must be added to the date (Maloney 27).

            Bones can tell us the species of the individual, age, sex, medical history, and cause of death. Certain diseases alter bones, making it possible to suggest the medical condition and health of the person. Particular occupations would alter bones a special way. If an injury was the result of a weapon used, it is possible to tell which one and possibly even the direction of impact. Often weapons are found still embedded in animal bones. This is proof that there was human contact! From animal bones we can gather information such as which species were contemporary, and whether or not they came into contact with humans. Did the humans hunt them? Were they domesticated? Types of animal bones also help to indicate what type of environment prevailed in that area (Fagan).

            Many times all the bones cannot be found. Scientists compare the measurements and structures of numerous bones (and teeth) which may later offer clues to identifying missing parts when necessary. Sometimes an anatomist might choose to join or recreate the missing parts in order to visualize the whole. Reconstructing one creature may take weeks or even months. From these reconstructions, artists and sculptors who are also experts in anatomy can then restore what the creature might have looked like. There is of course a lot of uncertainty. Two artists may produce completely different looking results (Lambert 226-227).

            The study of anatomy helps scientists to determine physical abilities. The length of bones will indicate height and body build. Shoulders can tell for example which primates lived in trees. Where the spinal chord comes out of the skull indicates how the creature held its head. Brain capacity is determined by the size of the skull. Thumb and finger bones describe the power to grip, or not. Hips, thighs, and toes separate quadrupedal climbers from bipedal walkers (Lambert 228).

            Teeth are helpful in deciphering the age of a person. The way teeth are worn can also depict a specific diet. Very worn teeth can be caused by a diet of gritty foods. Some people used their teeth to hold materials that they were working with, and they would eventually wear down the teeth in a certain way. We can see tooth decay or abscesses, too (Maloney 13).

            Stone tools are among the few artifacts that we do have available to analyze in our quest for the past. Lithic analysts can tell where the stone came from, how the artifact was made, and what it was used for. They can tell if it was well made or finished or damaged. In ancient sites where tools were made rather roughly, it is sometimes difficult to tell whether the stone is an actual tool or if it came to that shape from natural causes. In some cases, there may be residual matter that can be analyzed such as blood or hair. When flint knappers were creating tools, there were lots of flakes left on the ground (Maloney 11-12).

            Pottery is another artifact that can often withstand the test of time. It breaks, but doesn’t usually disintegrate. However, since pottery was invented approximately 10,000 years ago, we know that sites containing pottery will not be the oldest. Archeologists look at the style, decoration, and type of clay to determine customs, possible trades, and daily life. The scenes painted on the sides of a pot can tell the story of a people. It might show their work, interests, or what they wore. The shape of a pot tells what it was used for. If the pots are found away from where they were made, this often indicates trade. Archeologists figure out where a pot came from by looking at the color of the clay and the minerals in it (Maloney 11).

            A study of the environmental conditions of the times will often lead to greater understanding of why a certain group may have acted a certain way. Climate can provide information about specific animals available to hunt and specific plants to gather (Guilaine 14-16). Even without the remains of plants, we can see evidence of their use. Pollen grains from flowering plants are made of silica. This material does not degrade easily. The shape of the pollen grain determines which plant it came from. So we can gain clues about the climate and the time period. (Maloney 14) The study of the glaciers during the Ice Age makes it possible to speculate when and where people were able to get through. Understanding global cooling and warming is the key to the levels of the ocean and consequently landforms that may have been exposed or submerged. The locations of rivers of the past are often good places to gather information (Guilaine 14-16).

            We are missing so much information about paleo times; it has to be assumed that the materials were decomposable. This leaves us guessing as to the actual objects and methods that were employed. One way is to look to ancestors or similar cultures existing today. The study of existing peoples also provides us with certain insights into cultures and customs of the past.

Who Came to the New World and How Did They Get Here?

When we look at the archeological finds of the New World, we are struck with the fact that they are all representative of modern man (Homo sapiens sapiens). There are none of the expected ancestors. This leads us to the conclusion that man did not originate here. So how did he get here? That is a tricky question. The current theory taught in elementary school textbooks is that people migrated over the Bering Strait at the end of the last Ice Age. It is assumed that the people coming to the Americas were just following the herds of animals they hunted and did not realize they were entering a new continent. Most archeologists agree that the first people did not come over the great ice sheets. That would be very uncomfortable even for us today. There are a few who would like to say that the people arrived in boats, but as yet there is very little evidence to support this. The boats known to be made at the time would not withstand an ocean voyage. Yet, there are some scattered sites in Central and South America that almost convince us that people were here before the generally accepted 11,500 BP years ago that are documented. If this were true, how did these people get there? Even if they came across Beringia land bridge, they would still have a tremendous amount of ground to cover. Reliable data still needs to be uncovered. Archeologists are continually hoping to find older sites, but so far evidence is not available.

            The discovery of the Clovis and Folsom projectile points and finally the reliability of C-14 dating have helped to steady the wild guesses and pinpoint a realistic time frame. Clovis points are so named because the first recorded discovery was by A.W. Anderson who lived in Clovis, New Mexico in 1932. Since then Clovis sites have been discovered over most of the United States and even into Mexico. The Clovis People lived on the Great Plains from about 11,500 to 11,000 BP. These are the oldest sites discovered so far in North America. We know very little about these people because only bones and points have survived. The Clovis people disappeared abruptly around 11,000 BP. Interestingly enough, the big game animals of the Ice Age became extinct also. Some evolved into smaller versions. A form of bison survived and ranged over the Great Plains.

            The Folsom point was discovered embedded in Pleistocene bison by an African American cowboy named George McJunken in 1908. Sites containing Folsom points date between 11,000 and 10,000 years ago following the Clovis points in time (Dixon 1-6).

            The atlatl (spearthrower) was the major weapon used for hunting in Paleo-Indian times. It was accompanied by an atlatl hook that connected to the back giving the throw much more force. The projectile points were made of obsidian or chert, and they were middle sized, not small. The shafts have not survived, but it is assumed that they were made out of wood. The darts were placed into a foreshaft made of wood or bone. Shaft wrenches have been found that were probably used for straightening shafts. Changes in this technology consist primarily of how the base of a projectile point was formed. Different bases also represent different ways of connecting the point to the shaft (hafting). The split-stem hafting technique of Clovis and Folsom is the oldest. Different forms may have been used at simultaneously for different purposes. This knowledge of weaponry was passed from generation to generation. The bow and arrow probably came into the Americas from Asia around 10,500 BP (Dixon 149-159).

            It is clear that the first Americans were hunters and gatherers. Judging by what we know of human nature, the next step to colonization was the breaking off of little groups from the bigger group. This would be most likely due to reaching the limit of the natural resources (carrying capacity). This branching off is called fissioning (Dixon 39-40). These populations probably never were very large. It wasn’t until farming was invented that large groups of people lived together. It is widely accepted that farming in the Americas began in the area known as Mesoamerica. Maize (corn) was developed during this time. It also has evolved over time (Maloney 53).

          Christy Turner has done extensive study of human teeth and how they change. He has paid special attention to the teeth of prehistoric and living Native Americans as well as northeast Asians. He has come up with a pattern he calls “Sinodonty.” This pattern is evident only in Native Americans and northeast Asians, but not in people from southern Asia, Africa, or Europe. He came up with 20 dental traits to be compared. Sinodonty includes shovel shaped incisors, three rooted lower first molars, and single rooted upper first molars. He was able to conclude that the Americas were populated by “Sinodonts” from northeast Asia. He hypothesizes that the northeast Asians arrived in three different waves coming up from eastern Mongolia, eastern Siberia, across the continental shelf to Alaska. The ancestors of people from South America came over first. Next came the ancestors of the Northwest Coast and central Alaska. Finally the ancestors of the Aleut – Eskimo migrated over (Dixon 20-21) (Fagan 92-95).

            When searching for the oldest sites we come across constant obstacles and possibilities for interference with the evidence. It takes careful interpretation from many specialists. One example of complexity is discoveries in caves and rockshelters. Many times this setting attracts carnivores and other animals that may tamper with the evidence. It may be dislodged, dug up, and moved into the wrong strata. Sometimes humans return to the same site over and over. It is hard to distinguish exactly what happened under these conditions. Rock fall can also interfere with interpretation. Flowing water or ice also can change the results of the data. Another possibility to consider is that the Clovis people themselves were utilizing bones and rocks from many years earlier. Now it has become a requirement to find some kind of human presence in order to validate a site because there have been so many problems. Many of the sites studied did not have human remains (Dixon 86-89).

NAGPRA

It is important to note that in recent years, the study of Native American remains has become a controversial issue. Some people feel that human remains should stay buried and not scientifically scrutinized. Others believe that the knowledge gained by the scientific research far outweighs the moral interference. Some feel that the age of the remains should be taken into consideration. The US government enacted the Native American Graves and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) in 1990, which says that Native American tribes have to be consulted before any field research can take place. Also, museums were required to inventory and report all skeletal remains and related artifacts. These items will be returned to the tribes if they request them (Dixon 111-112).

Implementation

These standards will be utilized throughout the unit:

Language Arts:

Standard 1: Students will understand and use language arts for communication.
The student makes an oral presentation within the school and community
     1. The student publishes information using several methods and formats, such as overhead transparencies, handouts, computer-generated graphs and charts
Standard 2: Students will understand and use language arts as a learning tool.
     A. Apply critical thinking skills in listening, speaking, reading, and writing
          1. The student interprets and analyzes information to assist in completing individual and team project work
          2. The student uses appropriate techniques to collect the information
Standard 3: Students will listen and read for a variety of purposes.
     A. Read and study a wide range of materials
Standard 4: Students will use a variety of listening and reading strategies appropriately.
     A. Use study skills independently
     B. Use technological resources to assist comprehension
Standard 5: Students will speak clearly and write effectively for a variety of audiences and purposes.
     A. Use appropriate strategies to organize and to deliver oral communication
   B. Develop, write, and participate in drama, music, poems, and stories
Standard 10: Students will use state-of-the-art computer and technology to gather, use and synthesize information, and to create and communicate knowledge.
     A. Find and apply information from a variety of sources
     B. Acquire and use a common language for technology, technical writing, and research skills
     C. Use available technology to locate, organize, and present information
     D. Produce a variety of forms of writing using technology
          1. The student uses information technology to assist in gathering, analyzing, organizing, and presenting information; that is, the student:
applies information for specific purposes from on-line sources, such as the Internet, and other electronic data bases, such as a scientific data base on CD-ROM; and
     applies word-processing, graphics, database, and spreadsheet programs to produce project reports and related materials

Lesson: Who Am I?

Gifted Strand: Self-Understanding

Performance standard:
Social Studies Standard 6: Students will know and understand how personal and group identities are shaped by culture, physical environment, individuals, groups and institutions
identify attitudes, values and beliefs that influence personal identity

Time: 30 minutes

Materials: paper shopping bags, personal artifacts

Instruction:
Give students shopping bags. Send them home to choose five items (artifacts) that represent who they are. Do not choose anything that has identifying marks. Back at school; pass out unknown bags to each student. Try to guess who the bag represents. Write specific conclusions you can draw about the individual you are studying. Present findings and conclusions to group.

Discuss: Did people guess correctly? Is that because they know you? What types of objects were common? Did the objects represent daily activities, or were they something unusual? Were there any clues about what you eat or work that you do? If aliens from another planet found your bag, would they really be able to know who you are? What does this activity have to do with archeology?

Assessment: If you had to do this assignment again, would you choose the same objects? Why or why not? What might you choose instead?

Lesson: What is Archaeology?

Gifted Strand: Interest development, advanced knowledge, independence in learning

Performance standard:

Science Standard 1: Unifying concepts and processes
Students will understand science concepts of order and organization.
Apply information about the predictability and organization of the universe and its subsystems.
Explain which characteristics of the natural world make its future behavior predictable. Describe some characteristics of the natural world that make its future difficult to predict.
Standard 2: Unifying concepts and processes
Students will use evidence, models, and explanations to explore the physical world Identify and organize evidence needed to predict changes in natural and artificial systems.
In several experiments, before the experiment itself is done, identify what information is necessary to predict any changes that are anticipated. After the experiment is done, evaluate and discuss your conclusions about the predictions.
Standard 4: Unifying concepts and processes
Students will understand the physical world through the concepts of change, equilibrium, and measurement
Illustrate that constancy and change are properties of objects and processes.
Develop an understanding that most things are in the process of changing, and some processes and properties are constant.
Standard 11: Life Science
Students will know and understand the synergy among organisms and the environments of organisms
     A. Distinguish among organisms based on the way an organism regulates its internal environment in relation to changes in its external environment.
          1. Research evolutionary adaptations of present-day organisms; explain how these adaptations have contributed to their survival.
          2. Predict, observe, and record environmental changes and reactions of organisms to changes over time.
Social Studies Standard 3: Students will know, understand and apply the language, tools, and skills of social studies.
use social studies vocabulary and concepts;
interpret and report social studies information from diverse sources (people, media, technology, computers, and libraries)

Time: 1 – 2 hours + additional time for video and field trip

Materials: Chart or butcher paper, markers, archeology books, computer/Internet, videotape about archeology

Instruction:

§                      Begin with a class discussion. Post and fill in a class size KWL chart. Raise several questions:

How do we find out about the past?
How do we know what we know?
Where did humans come from?
How did they get here?
Who were these ancient peoples?
How do they relate to the Native Americans of today?
How can understanding the past help mankind in the future?
What is anthropology? How does archeology fit into that?

§                      This should lead into several mini-explorations:

Let each student choose a book containing basic information about archeology. Students then draw a question out of a basket that they will be searching to find the answer to such as:

What is archeology?
What can we learn from fossils, bones, teeth, etc?
What happens at a dig site?
How do we find out how old things are?
What are archeologists looking for?

§                      Each student will share the information they have learned with each other and complete the “learned” section of the KWL chart.

*Students may continue to research on their own about anything that sparked their interest for extra credit.

§                      Go on a field trip to the Maxwell Museum at UNM to observe the reconstruction of an archeological site and Native American artifacts.

§                      View a video tape about archeology.

§                      Students can participate in the web site activities at http://www.rom.on.ca/digs/munsell which emphasizes the critical thinking process that archeologists go through in order to make predictions and come to conclusions.

Assessment: Questions on the KWL chart were answered.

Lesson: Paleo-Indian Origins

Gifted Strand: Thinking skills, communication, advanced knowledge

Performance standard:
Social Studies Standard 1: Students will use knowledge and cultural understanding to explain how the world’s people cope with ever-changing conditions, examine issues from multiple perspectives, and respond to individual and cultural diversity.
describe how the peoples of the world are connected over time, showing similarities and differences based upon social studies knowledge of why those similarities or differences exist (e.g., geography, philosophies of governing, rise of nations, religion, etc.).
Science Standard 11: Life Science
Students will know and understand the synergy among organisms and the environments of organisms
     A. Distinguish among organisms based on the way an organism regulates its internal environment in relation to changes in its external environment.
          3. Research evolutionary adaptations of present-day organisms; explain how these adaptations have contributed to their survival.
          4. Predict, observe, and record environmental changes and reactions of organisms to changes over time.

Time: 2 days + field trip time

Materials: Computer/Internet, books, encyclopedias, textbooks, CD ROMs, theories written on index cards

Instruction:
Brainstorm a list of all the ways people could have come to the Americas.

Divide class into teams and distribute index cards, each containing a different theory regarding the population of the Americas. Tell students that they are to find out which theory is the correct one. They are to gather data to prove the theory that their team received.

Teams present findings.

Discuss: Is there a correct answer? What is the consensus of most of the books? Which theory do you think is correct? What evidence do you have? Do you have a different theory?

§                      Field trip to Indian Pueblo Cultural Center.

Assessment: Debate: over land vs. over sea

Lesson: Creation Stories/Religion

Gifted Strand: Thinking skills

Performance standard:

Language Arts Standard 8: Students will appreciate and respect their own language, culture, and literature, and will learn about the languages, cultures, and literature of others.
Explain differences between the forms and content of oral traditions and literature from a variety of cultures
Social Studies Standard 4: Students will know and understand the ways in which human beings view themselves and others over time.
identify and understand varying perspectives in historical writings
develop critical sensitivities, such as empathy regarding attitudes, values, and behavior of people in a variety of historical contexts
Standard 13: Students will know and understand the impact of science and technology on societies.
examine how the interactions between values, beliefs and attitudes have been influenced by scientific and technological knowledge

Time: 1 hour

Materials: The Native American Book of Knowledge by White Deer of Autumn, In the Beginning Creation Stories from Around the World told by Virginia Hamilton

Instruction:
(This lesson is meant to be facilitated like a Jr. Great Books discussion.)

Student homework will be to read “Raven the Creator” (Eskimo), “Old Man the Creator” (Blackfoot), “The Woman Who Fell from the Sky” (Huron), and “Turtle Dives to the Bottom of the Sea” (Maidu) from In the Beginning Creation Stories from Around the World told by Virginia Hamilton. Students are to make note of interesting points and also write a question they have about each story.

§                      Read to students from The Native American Book of Knowledge by White Deer of Autumn. (pp.3-11) This is an introduction to the Native American viewpoint about where they came from. It discusses the respect that should be shown to any culture’s beliefs.

§                      Facilitate a discussion about these stories. Compare and contrast them. Whatever point the students want to make must be documented somewhere in the texts they have read. Students may only refer the stories that all of them have read. The facilitator may only ask questions.

Do these stories have anything in common with the scientific explanations of where Native Americans came from?

Where did you come from?
How do religion and science differ?
Is it possible to believe in religion and science? Explain your answer.

Assessment: All students must contribute something to the discussion.

Extension: Students may want to read creation stories from other cultures and compare them to the Native American stories.

Students may want to continue an investigation into the origins of religions.

Lesson: Tools and Weapons

Gifted Strand: Thinking skills, advanced knowledge

Performance standard:

Social Studies Standard 6: Students will know and understand how personal and group identities are shaped by culture, physical environment, individuals, groups, and institutions.
describe personal changes and connections to social, cultural and historical contexts within community, the nation and the world
Standard 12: Students will know and understand physical environments and their relationships to ecosystems and human activities use geographic tools and resources such as aerial photographs, satellite images, geographic information systems, map projections, atlases, gazetteers, and other forms of cartography to generate and interpret information describe varying land forms and geographic features such as mountains, plateaus, islands, rain forests, deserts and oceans that have a relationship with the earth’s ecosystem

Time: 2 – 3 hours

Materials: computer, Internet, books, encyclopedias, Timeliner (software), National Geographic’s Mapmaker site

Instruction: Make copies of projectile points from several different time periods. Ask students to arrange them in the order of appearance, and also predict how the different shapes work. What are they used for? What are they made of? How are they made? Then have students conduct mini-explorations to learn about Paleo-Indian tools and weapons. Students will be able to conduct successful Internet searches. Students will use Timeliner software to create a timeline of projectile points. Students can add hand drawn pictures to the timeline. Students will generate a map showing the location of the projectile points that are on the timeline. Students will be able to explain the importance of Clovis and Folsom points. How do we know what Paleo-Indians hunted?

Discuss: How do modern hunters (and their projectile points) help archeologists to understand what paleo hunters were doing?

Assessment: Students will be able to arrange the projectile points in the proper sequence on a timeline. Students will use this information to create a PowerPoint presentation.

Lesson: Rock Art & Storytelling

Gifted Strand: Creativity, self-understanding

Performance standard:

See Language arts standards above.

Art Standard 1: Learn and develop the essential skills and technical demands unique to dance, music, theater/drama, and visual arts. Explore and understand the use of art materials and techniques by culturally diverse artists locally and globally. Research and discuss the relationship between art and artifact and their historical, geographical, cultural and political contexts.

Time: 3 – 4 days + field trip time

Materials: Before You Came This Way by Byrd Baylor, rock art photos, computer, Microsoft Publisher, Microsoft Excel, personal journals, clay rolled into ¼ inch tablets

Instruction:

§                      Read aloud: Before You Came This Way by Byrd Baylor.

Pair up students and give them several photographs of rock art. Ask them to discuss what they think each symbol means. Students then choose one of the photographs to create a story about. Students will retell their story to the group.

Discuss: Meanings of symbols, purpose of rock art, etc.

§                      Draw your own rock art on clay tablets using pencils or other instruments. Choices are:

1.                                           your life story
2.                                           an important event that happened to you
3.                                           symbols that represent you
4.                                           communicate a message that you think is important
5.                                           show your environment/community
6.                                           other idea? (get teacher permission)

§                      Research rock art. Are there answers to our questions?
§                      Prepare a database of symbols, locations, possible creators, possible meanings, etc.
§                      Prepare a list of questions to ask the park ranger on the field trip.

Take a field trip to Petroglyph National Monument. Ask questions. Record information. Draw the petroglyphs you see. Take photographs.

Assessment: Design a web site for Petroglyph National Monument. Include what you have researched, your database, as well as what you learned at the monument. Include your drawings and photographs. Your web pages will be posted on our classroom web site.

Extension: Students may want to experiment with various materials that made pigments and paintbrushes.

Lesson: Dig Site Simulation

Gifted Strand: Interpersonal skills, thinking skills, communication

Performance standard:

See Language arts standards above.

Science Standard 2: Unifying concepts and processes
Students will use evidence, models, and explanations to explore the physical world.
Identify and organize evidence needed to predict changes in natural and artificial systems.
In several experiments, before the experiment itself is done, identify what information is necessary to predict any changes that are anticipated. After the experiment is done, evaluate and discuss your conclusions about the predictions.

Time: 2 or more days

Materials: computer, word processing software, trowels, paint brushes, tooth brushes, baggies, screens, camera & film, clipboards, journals, meter sticks, string, graph paper, whisk broom & dust pan, buckets, magnifying glass, computer. For types of dirt and artifacts, see Teacher advanced preparation.

Teacher advanced preparation:

Teacher will prepare a large washtub for each team with several layers of rock and soil (such as clay, sand, potting soil, kitty litter, etc.) and strategically place several artifacts at various levels. The artifacts are your choice. “Modern” artifacts may be easier to collect than “prehistoric”. Suggestions are: boiled chicken bones, broken pottery, dried maze, etc.

Each washtub should have a written scenario with enough information for students to make a hypothesis. For example: Site located 1000 meters from Rio Grande river bank, unusual mound shape, bones were found protruding from the ground.

Instruction:

Students will fill out job applications and campaign (give a short persuasive speech) on why they are qualified for the job. Jobs will include: archeologist, cultural anthropologist, biologist, cartographer, geologist, journalist, and photographer. Teams will be voted on for an archeological expedition.

§                      Teams will need to assemble an archeological tool kit.
§                      Teams will design a record sheet.
§                      Teams develop a hypothesis about what they will find.
§                      Grid the area (washtub). Record findings on graph paper.
§                      Carefully excavate and record findings.
§                      Label and save all artifacts and remains.
§                      Write observations, conclusions, etc in personal journal.
§                      Take pictures.
§                      Discuss and draw conclusions and postulate theories.
§                      Combine journal finding into one site report.

Assessment:
Checklist of:
Students correctly fill out job application.
Students give persuasive speech.
Students work together as a team. (Self-assessment rubric)
Students keep daily journal of observations.
Students follow the scientific method from hypothesis to conclusions.
Students write final site report.

Lesson: Documentary

Gifted Strand: Communication, interpersonal skills, thinking skills

Performance standard: See Language arts standards above.

Time: 2 – 3 days.

Materials: Computer, video camera, excavated artifacts

Instruction:

Students will collaborate on writing scripts for producing a documentary film on their archeological research and excavation. They will plan to interview some of the dig site members. Conclusions and theories will be stated of course. An explanation of archeological procedures will be an important part of the video. They will video tape the dig site as well as artifacts. Students will be required to rehearse so the “show” goes smoothly. Commercials will be written to correspond with the subject matter. For example, a company could be selling the latest meter sticks or brushes, or a travel agent may try to persuade you to visit certain exotic sites, etc.

Assessment: The documentary is the assessment for this whole unit. A rubric should be developed.

Documentation

Bibliography

Arnold, Caroline. Stories in Stone Rock Art Pictures by Early Americans. New     York: Clarion               Books, 1996.

            Great photographs. All about the rock art in the Coso Mountain Range of California.               Contains information about the climate and culture.

Autumn, White Deer of. The Native American Book of Change. Hillsboro, Oregon: Beyond                Words Publishing, Inc., 1992.

---. The Native American Book of Knowledge. Hillsboro, Oregon: Beyond Words Publishing,                 Inc., 1992.

---. The Native American Book of Life. Hillsboro, Oregon: Beyond Words Publishing, Inc.,                 1992.

---. The Native American Book of Wisdom. Hillsboro, Oregon: Beyond Words Publishing, Inc.,                 1992.

            Written for students from a Native American viewpoint on ancient as well as modern                times.

Barnes, Trevor. The Kingfisher Book of Religions Festivals, Ceremonies and Beliefs from                Around the World. New York: Kingfisher,1999.

            What is religion? Brief mention of ancient and current religions including Aztec, Inca, and                Native American.

Barr, Donald. The How and Why Wonder Book of Primitive Man. Los Angeles: Price Stern                Sloan, 1981.

            A question and answer format give an overall look at the various stages of human
             development.

Baylor, Byrd. Before You Came This Way. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., Inc.,1969.

            Poetry book with rock art illustrations.

Corbishley, Mike. What Do We Know About Prehistoric People?. New York: Peter Bedrick               Books,1994.

            Brief account of cultural adaptations. Lots of good illustrations.

Cork, Barbara and Struan Reid. The Usborne Young Scientist Archeology. Tulsa: EDC
            Publishing, 1984.

           Short explanations about what archeologists do with lots of drawings and pictures.

Dewey, Jennifer Owings. Stories on Stone Rock Art: Images from the Ancient Ones. Boston:               Little, Brown and Company, 1996.

            Picture book about the author’s knowledge and experiences with rock art in the Southwest.

Dixon, James E. Bones, Boats, & Bison Archeology and the First Colonization of Western                North America. Albuquerque: The University of New Mexico Press, 1999.

This book reviews many archeological sites in the quest for finding human life in the Americas before 11,500 BP. It includes the original conclusions as well as questions raised and updated findings due to newer technology. It also presents current theories as to how people arrived.

Fagan, Brian M. The Great Journey The Peopling of Ancient America. New York: Thames and           Hudson Inc., 1987.

        A short explanation of where humans came from, leading to how they arrived in America. It            covers current theories and a few archeological sites.

Griffin-Pierce, Trudy. The Encyclopedia of Native America. New York: Viking, 1995.

Short chapter on prehistoric Native Americans before launching into historic Native             American history. Lots of heavy reading.

Guilaine, Jean, ed. Prehistory The World of Early Man. New York: Facts on File, 1991.

           A brief introduction to archeology and technological methods preclude a narrative timeline               on the study of humankind in all parts of the world.

Hamilton, Virginia. In The Beginning Creation Stories from Around the World. New York:             Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, 1988.

           Several cultures’ versions of how mankind came into being. Mythical, short stories.

Jackson, Donna M. The Bone Detectives: How Forensic Anthropologists Solve Crimes and             Uncover Mysteries of the Dead. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1995.

            Interesting account of how bones give scientists information about them.

La Pierre, Yvette. Native American Rock Art Messages From The Past. Charlottesville, Virginia:                Thomasson-Grant, 1994.

            History of rock art, possible meanings, how it’s dated, etc.

Lambert, David and the Diagram Group. The Field Guide to Early Man. New York: Facts on                File, 1987.

The origins of man from primates to Homo sapiens are well illustrated here. There is some explanation of human development and cultural practices. Very informative.

Maloney, Norah. The Young Oxford Book of Archeology. New York: Oxford University Press,             1997.

This book gives a good clear overview of what archeology is and how it works. It then goes on to describe the development of man and landmark accomplishments around the globe.

**McKay, Bev. Our Prehistoric Ancestors: An Integrated Activity Unit. Nashville: Incentive             Publications, Inc., 1992.

         A lesson plan book about human development and hands on archeology simulations.

Moore, Sabra. Petroglyphs Ancient Language/ Sacred Art. Santa Fe, New Mexico: Clear Light             Publishers, 1998.

         Many drawings of petroglyphs and where they are found. Not scientific information.

Reader’s Digest. Mysteries of The Ancient Americas The New World Before Columbus.
          Pleasantville, New York: Readers Digest Association, Inc., 1986.

            Large book, small print, heavy reading, photographs.

Reader’s Digest. Through Indian Eyes: The Untold Story of Native American Peoples.                Pleasantville, New York: Readers Digest Association, Inc., 1986.

            Large book, small print, heavy reading, photographs. Lots of information. Seems to be                accurate. Lots of quotes, but not written by Native Americans.

Smith, Jr., Howard E. All About Arrowheads and Spear Points. New York: Henry Holt and               Company, 1989.

Children’s book giving the history and use of several points including Clovis, Folsom, ivory, copper, etc. It also contains the misinformation about the “Sandia” point.

Stuart, Gene S. Secrets From the Past. Washington, D.C.: Books for World Explorers National             Geographic Society,1979.

Wonderful photographs. Brief history of the Americas, Cahokia, Mesa Verde, Machu Picchu, Palenque, Incas, burial mounds, as well as other places around the world. Interesting portrayal of New York City as it changed every 100 years.

Stuart, George E. and Francis P. McManamon. Archeology and You. Washington, D.C.: Society            for American Archeology, 1996.

Pamphlet about the career of archeology.

Taylor, Colin F. Native American Weapons. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001.

            Small print, but lots of good pictures. Historic weapons only.

Tully, Lawrence N. and Steven N. Tully. Field Guide to Flint Arrowheads & Knives of the             North American Indian. Paducah, Kentucky: Collector Books, 1998.

Photographs of projectile points from the Paleo-Indian period all the way to A.D. 500. Included is the name, the period, the locations, and approximate values.

**White, John R. Ph.D. Hands-On Archeology: An Archaeological Manual for the Teacher.            Waco, Texas: Prufrock Press, 1998.

This is an excellent resource for teachers who want to introduce students into archeology. It includes resource information, lesson plans, and worksheets.

**   denotes teacher resource

Web Sites
“Archeology in Nova Scotia.” © 1996-2000 Nova Scotia Museum

            Very informative site containing information from Paleo to present.

Baker, Michael. “Kids Dig Reed.” http://www.kidsdigreed.com/

Kids are involved in the archeological excavation of the Reed farmstead. Fun. Good example of methods, etc.

“Charlotte, The Vermont Whale Glaciers and the Glacial Ages.”
          http://www.uvm.edu/whale/GlaciersGlacialAges.html

          Explaination of ice age and specifics to Vermont.

Desert USA. “Petroglyph National Monument Virtual Visitor Center.”
        http://www.desertusa.com/pnm/pnm.html

All about our local petroglyphs, including pictures.

Discovery School. http://school.discovery.com/students/

          Some articles and basic lesson plans.

“Flints and Stones: Real Life in Prehistory.” http://museums.ncl.ac.uk/flint/menu.html

Information about the Stone Age hunter-gatherers.

National Geographic. http://www.nationalgeographic.com

Articles of interest, and a great mapmaker program for kids to use. Also online expeditions.

“Petroglyph National Monument.” http://www.istvan.com/petroglyphs/

              The official site of our local petroglyphs.

The Rock Art Foundation. http://www.rockart.org/

The Rock Art Foundation exists to promote the conservation and study of the Native    American rock art in the Lower Pecos region of Southwest Texas

Sherman, Elise. “Archaeological Analysis: Pieces of the Past.” http://www.rom.on.ca/digs/munsell/

A good introduction to archeology, including photographs. Also links to student activity pages.

Warren, Claire. “Archeologica: Archeological News and Information.”
          http://www.archaeologica.org/index.html

          Information about archeology.