Table of Contents

Antoinette (Toni) Barela    99-03-01
Linking Geology, The Environment and Language Development

Larry Daughenbaugh             99-03-02
Desert Denial
Importance of Water in a Desert Environment

Karl Dreyer                     99-03-03
Soil, Soil, Everywhere, Please Tell Me What You Think!

Doug Earick                     99-03-04
The History and Development of the Rio Grande River in the Albuquerque Region

Sheri Jett                             99-03-05
Re-examining the "Desperate Country" and the "Desperate City":
A Look at the Parallels Between 19^th Century Environmental and Transcendental
Thought and Human Impact on the Albuquerque Region

Tommy Mace                     99-03-06
Household Water Resource Management in the Albuquerque, New Mexico Region

Dolores Salazar                     99-03-07
The Chemical, Geological and Environmental Necessity of Water Conservation in the Albuquerque Region

Kathleen Schneider             99-03-08
Population Explosion and Soil Erosion

Maureen Senetra                 99-03-09
Toward a Better Understanding of Albuquerque’s Natural Resource: Water

Doris Tischler                 99-03-10
Soil Contamination in the South Valley of the Albuquerque Basin, New Mexico

Vickie Warr                     99-03-11
The Water Dance: Using Science and Poetry to Investigate and Interpret the Water Cycle

Les McFadden
Dept. of Earth and Planetary Sciences
University of New Mexico, 87131
Phone: 505-277-6121
e-mail: lmcfadnm@unm.edu

We will take a geologic perspective to explore how Albuquerque's environment has been influenced by human habitation and accelerating urbanization. First, we will survey the evolution of the region's geologic framework over billions of years. Then we will consider the region's landscapes, soils, and vegetation patterns, features that have developed mainly over the last two million years during the Quaternary Period, a time of profound climatic changes. This will provide the basis for examining such issues as soil erosion, urbanization and flooding, potential geological hazards, waste disposal, land subsidence, and others. Field trips to key sites will illustrate concepts and provoke discussion.

Readings

Molles, Manuel. Ecology: Concepts and Applications. New York: McGraw-IEII.1999.

I will select other readings, primarily shorter scientific articles, specifically relevant to field sites we will visit. Most of these will be published in the forthcoming New Mexico Geological Society Field Conference Volume concerning geologic, geomorphological, and environmental research in the Albuquerque "country."

Although not required reading for the seminar, you may find the following a useful resource, especially as you develop curriculum units:

Rosner, Hy, and Joan Rosner. Albuquerque's Environmental Story.

We will take five to six field trips requiring about a half day each. At each site, we will examine some key geologic, geomorphic, biotic, soil, and cultural features to see the environmental- historical story they tell. At each site, Fellows will have time to conduct limited studies designed to provide a basis for subsequent development of projects for high school and middle school students. During seminar meetings on days between field trips, we will discuss the trips, the studies, relevant readings, and the developing curriculum units.

1. The Pino Embayment, Elena Gallegos Open Space Area

2. Coronado Pueblo, Bernalillo

3. An Albuquerque area landfill site

4. Rio Grande Floodplain and Bosque

5. Rio Rancho Area

6. Either

a) Sandia Mountains Piedmont, Placitas area and surrounding region (geology, landforms, faults, soils, vegetation, and geohydrological framework and impacts) or

b) Albuquerque Volcanoes (geology, surficial deposits, environmental impacts).

Linking Geology, The Environment and Language Development

This curriculum can be taught to most middle school students. For the past thirteen years, I have been teaching 6th grade in an inner-city middle school with a high percentage of students identified as Limited English Proficient (LEP) based on their scores on the Language Assessment Scale (LAS). Our LEP students generally are monolingual in their native language. Other LEP students may have had several years of ESL, Bilingual or English instruction, but their reading and writing ability scores in English fall two or more years behind their chronological age. There is also a high percentage of students whose oral language makes them appear bilingual in social settings, but whose academic skills in both languages are underdeveloped. These students appear to be ready for academics, but their proficiency level in either language is usually categorized as "survival skill" level. Ninety-eight percent of the school’s total student population qualifies for free or reduced lunch. Many students live with single parents and/or grandparents. Even with weak skills, sixth graders are often very eager to learn new information and please their teacher. Through the use of an interdisciplinary geology curriculum unit on Albuquerque and its geologic factors, as the Bilingual Language Arts teacher I plan to focus on English and Spanish language development of geologic terms with my students. One of my goals is to help students respect and care about their environment.

My student population usually consists of a group of twenty to twenty-five students selected mainly by their LAS scores and their Gates McGinitie Reading Test scores. Usually one-third of the group speaks and reads monolingually in Spanish, another third have some beginning to emergent reading and writing skills in English, and the final third fall into the "Bilingual" category described in the earlier paragraph.

The students, their families and the communities often place emphasis on their different birth origins (i.e., Mexico vs. New Mexico). When this dynamic remains the focus of the students, negative relationships and problems develop in school, on the playground and in their neighborhoods. My goal is that as the students learn the many ways we are connected geographically, they would choose to create more positive relationships that may extend into their communities. With this in mind, I created this curriculum unit to provide information that encourages the students to focus on these physical factors which connect them to the earth, to the communities and to each other.

NARRATIVE

Students can gain much by developing an appreciation for the geological evidence they see everyday. The overall goal of this curriculum unit is to introduce students to the record of Earth's past. By completing this course, they will learn how geologists have shown that Albuquerque was once covered with ice and water thousands to millions of years ago. Students can also learn, by using the Columna Estratigrafica (Geologic Time Line), the physical evidence of the changes that occurred on earth as the planet evolved. They also will recognize that humans have inhabited the earth for only a relatively short time, and they can become more familiar with the many positive and negative impacts humans have made on the environment during this time. Throughout this unit, students can learn to trace their past by finding the geologic evidence left behind of earth's history. They can become detectives looking for clues in the geological formations surrounding them. They will record their thoughts and ideas in journals in an activity that will encourage them to use the new vocabulary presented while learning about such concepts as sedimentary layers, rock formations, aquifers and the causes of faults and earthquakes. By teaching about our past, I hope to inspire an awareness of current ecological issues and how they impact everyone.

As a Bilingual Language Arts teacher, I do not feel that I have a strong enough background or general knowledge in the history of geology. Therefore, I felt it important to include my initial thoughts and reactions as to why this curriculum is important to me; thus allowing me to understand why I felt it was necessary to teach this topic to my students. Although I feel it is important for the students to gain some geological historical background, the language differences make it necessary to limit the amount of historical information presented to my students. Hopefully, the unit will get them thinking and wondering about improving and saving the earth for themselves and future generations as it has done for me.

In prehistoric times, many people experienced and explained nature as the manifestation of gods expressing various emotions toward man. Today, many explanations for natural phenomena come from modern science, but many of the mysteries remain. Often science discovers an answer to one question, but in doing so, more questions arise. For example, scientists can explain the causes of volcanic eruptions, but they cannot necessarily predict exactly when a particular eruption will occur. In a sense, Earth is a fragile, constantly changing organism made up of a core mantle and an outer thin crust. Yet the changes that occur on the earth when there is an earthquake or volcanic eruption can alter the environment so much that a plant or animal can become endangered or eventually extinct. As far as we know Earth is the only planet in our solar system that sustains life. In the past, when scientific explanations for certain phenomena differed from explanations provided by religion, problems inevitably arose. Scientists began to use the scientific method exclusively as a way to offer proof for their theories. This method requires a prior adherence to no particular principles or ideas that cannot be subjected to rigorous, objective scrutiny. Due to the use of the scientific method, theories that provide answers are more acceptable today; however, they still only provide theories much of the time.

In more modern time, the Industrial Revolution provided many people with a better life. At the same time it is the cause of some serious environmental problems. For example, industrial emissions have depleted the Earth and its inhabitants of the protective ozone layer. Human population growth, urbanization and overuse of the land through agricultural practices has caused many animals and plants to become endangered. We worry about the quality and quantity of the drinking water we require for survival as a species. We worry about the quality of the air we breathe and the effect excessive pollution will have on us and future generations. We question what effects the misuse of our earth and its resources will have for all humans. It is important for all of us to recognize that in the short time that humans have inhabited the earth, in comparison to the length of the geologic time scale, the magnitude of changes, misuse of resources, and pollution that industry and technology has put upon our population and planet may have caused irreversible damage.

Day 1-Introduction

Objective: To determine students’ general prior knowledge about New Mexico and geology

To introduce the topic of geology and New Mexico, I will have an exploring exhibit on a table in the front of the room. Items that relate to the topic (i.e. various rock and lava samples, leaves from native trees and shrubs, pictures and/or photographs of land formations, maps of hiking trails, map of New Mexico, etc.) will be scattered on the table.

One student from each group of three or four students will select three items to take back to their group. Each group will discuss these items, identify them and decide how these items are important to New Mexico. One group member will act as scribe and record the answers to the following questions:

1. What is it?

2. Where did it come from?

3. What is its purpose or function?

4. What did it teach you about New Mexico?

Another student from each group will be the reporter for the group. His or her job is reporting the findings to the whole class.

To end this activity, the students will do a ten minute journal writing addressing the topic "One thing I learned today was...".

Day 2-4 Vocabulary

Objective: To introduce, discuss the meanings of and begin learning the vocabulary words in both English and Spanish

The following list of words would be written on two separate blackboards. The English speaking students would begin with that list while the Spanish speaking students would use the Spanish list. Using the Spanish/English glossary provided, the students will define the words and illustrate each word. Because the list includes about one hundred terms, the students would work on twenty-five at a time. This may take longer than three days.

To avoid the "I can't draw" syndrome, before beginning individualized work, the students will play Pictionary in small groups. This allows students to demonstrate how to draw ideas and lessen other students’ fears of drawing. In addition, it will reinforce all of the students' understanding of the words and the definitions.

Day 5-Letter Writing

Objective: To write a formal business letter requesting information

After reviewing the form for a formal business letter that hangs in the front of the classroom, the students will select an address that is written on the blackboard. Then they will write a letter requesting information on their topic. Letters will be addressed and mailed immediately.

Addresses:

Day 6-Design Book

Objective: To create a Mountain Shape Book (see Fig. 1) to keep facts, observations and personal thoughts/journaling and teach the parts of a book

Materials will be placed on front table for students to choose from to make a book. They will design a cover and cut blank or lined paper in the shape of the cover. They will make a title page, a dedication page, a table of contents page and leave the rest blank. Example activities for the book may include journaling, note-taking, a story section, drawings, a poetry section, etc.

Day 7-Storywriting

Objective: To write a story utilizing new vocabulary words and concepts learned about New Mexico geology

Students will brainstorm about ideas and words that relate to New Mexico landforms, geologic history and any information received from letter writing activity. Each student is to write an individual story, but they may peer edit and/or critique each other's stories.

Day 8-Vocabulary Review

Objective: To review in several different forms the vocabulary words presented during the first week of the unit

The activity involves three learning stations. In one area the students play Pictionary using the blackboard and a stack of vocabulary words written on index cards. In another area, the students play a "Concentration" memory card game. Materials include index cards with the definitions and words from the dictionary they made. There is a set in English and a set in Spanish. The goal of the game is to turn two cards over at a time and try to match the word and its definition. In the third area, the students participate in the drawing of a class mural. The students use all the definitions and words practiced in the other two areas of the room. When a student gets to this activity, they pick a card that names a vocabulary word. They must find a way to illustrate the word that will incorporate itself into the overall idea of the mural. A variety of art supplies (i.e. pastels, watercolor, crayon, marker, etc.) will be available to the students.

Day 9 (and on)

Lessons that reinforce new vocabulary words and review previously presented words will continue as the social studies/science teachers finish up their units. This may include poetry writing, journaling, repeating earlier activities, note-taking and/or reporting on materials received in response to the letter writing activity.

1. Field Trip to Rio Grande Nature Center

a. tour by rangers

b. scavenger hunt *

c. lunch

d. guest speaker to talk about the importance of the bosque, the cottonwood forests, and their ecosystems

2. Field Trip to the Sandia Mountains (Elena Gallegos Open Area)

a. tour by forest ranger

b. scavenger hunt (* in Activity 1)

c. lunch

d. guest speaker to talk about the formation of the mountains over time and the importance of the mountain ecosystems

3. Field Trip to Coronado Monument

a. self-tour of area

b. journaling/sketching period

c. lunch

d. guest speaker to discuss the influence of human inhabitance on the Albuquerque Basin and its ecosystems

The social studies and science teachers will create their own tests evaluating the students’ knowledge of vocabulary and concepts presented. As the Language Arts teacher, I created a rubric to score the students’ ability to identify the 8 parts of a book and to score the finished product of the letter writing activity. The general scoring criteria is as follows:

Parts of a book--Using their social studies text, the students will orally identify the title page, author, publisher, dedication page, copyright date, table of contents, glossary and index. Grades will be assigned as 8 of 8 correct=A, 7 of 8 correct=B, 6 of 8 correct=C, 5 of 8 correct=D.  Business letter format--I will evaluate the finished letter before mailing for the correct placement of the heading, inside or business address, salutation, body, closing and signature. Grades will be assigned as 6 of 6 correct=A, 5 of 6 correct=B, 4 of 6 correct=D.  Envelope--I will evaluate the correct placement of the mailing address and return address on the envelope. If it is correct, the student receives an A.

Amato, Carol J. The Earth. Smithmark Publishers, Inc. 1992.
            This book gives a background of the study of the Earth with a geology background explaining beginning theories to the present ecological movements.

Church, Jok. Beakman's World: A Visit to the Hit TV Show. A TV books, Inc. Production. Kansas City, Missouri. 1993.
            This book is a useful resource for students to find the answers to specific questions. It also gives amazing facts and has experiments on different science               topics for students to complete.

Cole, Joanna. The Magic School Bus, Inside the Earth. Scholastic, Inc. New York, NY. 1987.
            This book is a series that uses Ms. Frizzle's class to teach about the formation of the earth and different kinds of rocks.

Feather, Jr., Ralph M. and Susan Snyder. Earth Science. Glencoe. New York, NY. 1999.
            This is a middle school earth science text.

Gibbons, Gail. Planet Earth, inside and out. Wm. Morrow and Co., Inc. New York, NY. 1995.
            This book has illustrations and vocabulary which describes the earth inside and out.

Markle, Sandra. Earth Alive. Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Books. New York, NY. 1991.
            This book describes the constantly changing earth with reasons and the effects of the changes.

Oxlade, Chris and Corinne Stockley. Usborne Science and Experiments: The World of the Microscope. Usborne Publishing Ltd. Saffron Hill, London. 1989.
            This book centers around the uses of a basic optical microscope. It also has a wonderful glossary that students could use as a reference. There are activities               and projects that the students would apply what they have learned.

Sipiera, Paul P. I Can be a Geologist. Childrens Press. Chicago, Illinois. 1986.
            This book can be used for vocabulary definitions with simple illustrations of the vocabulary. It could also be used to show students that they can have a               career in geology.

Smith, Bruce and David McKay. Geology for Young Scientists. Franklin Watts. New York, NY. 1992.
           This is a book that shows projects and experiments that help students understand and explore aspects of the Earth, its age, plate tectonics, earthquakes, and              hydrogeology.

Spencer, Guy J. Let's Take a Trip: A Living Desert. Troll Associates. Mahwah, NJ. 1988.
            This book describes the plants and animals found in the Sonoran Desert.

Stille, Darlene R. The Ice Age. Childrens Press, Inc. Canada. 1990.
            This book describes "The Ice Age" and the effects it had on the earth.

Symes, Dr. R. F. rocas y minerales. Toppan Printing Co. Londres. 1992.
            This book gives a description of the earth and its composition in Spanish.

Van Cleave, Janice Pratt. A+ Projects in Earth Science. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY. 1998.
            This is a book filled with sample science projects that students could use to learn more about geology.

World Book International. Nuestromundo en peligro. Scott Fetzer Co. London. 1995.
           This is a book written in Spanish that addresses the earth in danger of extinction because of over population and other signs of urbanization and its effects on              the environment.

Enger, Eldon D. and Bradley F. Smith. Environmental Science, A Study of Interrelationships. Wm. C. Brown Co. Dubuque, IA. 1992.
            This book describes the various ecosystems and how they are interrelated.

Feather, Jr., Ralph M. and Susan Snyder. Earth Science. Glencoe. New York, NY. 1999.
            This is a middle school earth science text.

Merritts, Dorothy. Environmental Geology: An Earth System Science Approach. W. H. Freeman and Co. New York, NY. 1998.
            This book approaches earth science using human views and studies of the earth.

Mills, George and John Aitken. Scientific Problem Solving. Fearon Teacher Aids. Edinburgh, Scotland. 1985.
            This is a book with activities using scientific problem solving.

Molles, Jr. Manuel C. Ecology, Concepts and Applications. McGraw-Hill Co. Boston, Massachusetts. 1999.
            This book describes the interactions between land, water, and earth's populations and the effect the earth has on an ecological system.

Samples, Bob. Director of Project Wild Materials. Aquatic Project Wild. USA. 1987.
            This book is an interdisciplinary supplementary of environmental and conservation issues with experiments and projects.

(Activities and demonstrations are in italics)

• Purpose
• Objectives
• Introduction
• Water: the marvelous molecule
• Electrolysis of Water
• Availability of Water
• Physical Properties of Water
• Changes of State Demonstration
• The Water Cycle
• Rio Grande Watershed
• Delineation of Rio Grande Watershed
• Analyzing River Flow Graphs
• Calculating River Flow: a field trip activity
• Environmental Impact of Dams and Channelization
• Population Pressures on the Environment
• Residential Water Conservation: a month long homework assignment
• Origin of Rock
• Continental Rise: an analogy
• Formation of the Aquifer and Rio Grande Rift
• The Intercontinental Separation: a demonstration
• Charging the Aquifer
• Impact of the City Upon the Aquifer
• City Planning: a new concept
• Final Project: Water is Infinite, Albuquerque is finite
• Summary
• Notes
• Materials
• Bibliography
• Student Reading

The purpose of this unit is to understand the water cycle. Students should understand where our water ultimately comes from, how it gets here, and its relationship with the environment once it arrives. The effects we shall examine are the erosion it causes, the growth it nourishes, and the rivers and aquifers it fills. In addition, we will study the effect that our human culture has upon the Rio Grande and the aquifer that underlies it. In order to understand the effects, we will study the geologic history and development of the aquifers and the surrounding rock formation.

Students will be able to

• draw a diagram showing the water cycle
• delineate the boundaries of a watershed
• compute an approximate measure of how much water is provided by a watershed
• graph and analyze river flow data
• draw a cross section of the Rio Grande Rift
• identify rock types and give characteristics of each
• calculate specific gravities of rock types
• diagram main features of an aquifer
• identify how water is used and/or wasted by Albuquerque’s Human Population
• Create a legislative plan or city policy to conserve water
• Individually practice water conservation

I teach at Rio Grande High School, which is situated in the Rio Grande Valley, about a mile from the Rio Grande. The student population comes from both an urban and rural background. Many students live on land that is irrigated by the acequias that tap the waters of the Rio Grande. All of us are dependent on the aquifer for our domestic water supply.

Albuquerque receives little rainfall, about 7-10 inches annually, and depends upon the higher mountains to the north of us to capture atmospheric water, tributaries of the Rio Grande to deliver it to us, and the aquifer to hold it in deposit so as to permit us to withdraw it as needed. However, there is a finite flow of water provided by the mountains. As the population dependent upon that supply has increased beyond the annual discharge of the northern Rio Grande, we have begun to deplete the aquifer that has been collecting water for thousands of years. Sooner or later, our inheritance will vanish. We see some consequences of a depleted aquifer today. As the aquifer is drawn down, water from the river channel percolates down to refill the unsaturated alluvium. At certain times and in certain areas, the river’s flow is so small, and the percolation so great, that the Rio Grande runs dry. This should and, at least partially, has served as a wake-up call to cities in the Rio Grande Basin.

The population of Albuquerque exploded after the Second World War, and is continuing to expand. As with all southwestern cities, Albuquerque is beginning to examine water issues. The city council recently began entertaining legislative ideas to

conserve water, such as not permitting watering of lawns between 10:00 a.m. and

6:00 p.m. We have water cops who issue tickets to flagrant water wasters. But still we generally live in a state of desert denial. The new county Court House has a vast, lush lawn, and an almost invisible xeric garden. A woman in a city subdivision attempted to replace her midwestern, water thirsty lawn with xeric landscaping and was blocked in that attempt by the subdivision’s board. Eventually, she did prevail, but only after public opinion scorned the idiocy of a policy that mandated water waste.

We see water waste every day; malfunctioning sprinklers misdirecting or geysering water straight up and out into the streets, lawns being watered during windstorms, or during the hottest time of the day, or consequently relying on automatic sprinklers to water during a heavy rainfall. Ironically, the water wasters are too often our government and our schools, the very institutions that preach and teach water conservation. The schools should not only educate but also model, and students should have the tools to observe wasteful practices and call the appropriate villains on their wasteful sins. Likewise, by studying the wasteful ways of our society, we will become aware of our own methods of utilizing water, and recognize our own individual sins. Too often we blame the nameless corporations for the depletion and contamination of our resources as we drain our radiator’s antifreeze into the streets and leave the water running as we brush our teeth.

Water is undervalued and unappreciated in those regions of the world where it has become too easy to obtain. By marveling at the life-giving characteristics of water, and its importance and scarcity in our environment, students should take away from the unit a sense of wonder at just how unique our planet might be, and perhaps a sense of responsibility that we are, in however small a part, her guardians.

We live on a water planet, though precious little of it is available at any one time to nourish the quarter of the planet that is terrestrial. Many factors contribute to the liquid state of water and its distribution. The earth rotates on its axis every 24 hours. This rotational time period keeps the different regions of the earth from overheating and freezing. Likewise, its distance from the sun and our atmosphere provide a temperature range in which H₂O exists primarily as a liquid. We presently have not found any other planet or moon in our solar system where water exists as a liquid, although Mars does show a past history of water flow.¹

But the earth also has regions that seasonally cool enough that the water will cool to a solid. This occurs most often at high latitudes and altitudes. It is the high altitude mountains in northern New Mexico and southern Colorado that form the watershed for the Rio Grande. The snows that fall there in the winter form a snowpack, a reservoir of H₂O. A large fraction of that snowpack will gradually melt, run off, and provide the lowlands with water during the warm summer months, thus serving as a time capsule for water transport to the desert environments.

Aquifers serve as even better time capsules. The material in the aquifers slows the water to a crawl, and serves to preserve water for decades and even centuries into the future.

A water molecule consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen. Chemically, it is expressed as H₂O. We can show this recipe by setting up the following demonstration.

This demonstration should be set up at least one hour prior to class to allow enough gas to collect to provide the "oomph" of the experiment.

Bubbles will immediately begin to collect at the exposed electrodes in the test tubes. One test tube will accumulate gas at twice the rate of the other tube. One can question the students as to which test tube contains oxygen and which contains hydrogen. Have the students examine the charges on each of the collecting rods, and remind them that opposites attract. Given that information, query them as to which part of the molecule carries a positive charge and which carries a negative charge.

Finally ask students to guess what would happen if one were to put a match in each of the test tubes.

2 H₂ + O₂ > 2 H₂O + energy.

This demonstration perks the students up quite a bit. Always there are requests to do it again, even amidst complaints that it wasn’t a very impressive explosion. (‘Tis sad we need explosions to spark youthful curiosity, but we do what we must).

This simple molecule occurs in abundance on Earth. However, it is not spread out evenly, and much of it is not usable in the places that it does occur. The oceans contain 97% of the water on this planet and 2.7% is locked up in glacial ice. Only 0.3% of the planet’s water is liquid fresh water. This is distributed in lake, rivers, groundwater, and atmospheric water vapor.²

Fresh groundwater holds 0.76% of the planet’s water, and only 0.0002% of water is in our planet’s rivers at any one time. Soil water and lakes contribute another 0.014% water. Thus, prior to the invention of the windmill and the water pump, terrestrial life on this planet had to make do on about 0.02% of our planet’s water. It is simply amazing to this author that the Earth could do so much with so little in the middle of so much.

Water does not behave like most substances. Unlike most substances, water expands when it freezes, and thus decreases its density. This decreased density allows it to float to the top of the remaining H₂O occurring in the liquid state. This ice cap insulates the body of liquid water. Much energy is required to transform H₂O from its solid state to its liquid state.

Prior to class, place similar containers of olive oil and water in a freezer and allow them time to solidify. Although olive oil will solidify in a freezer, it is important that they begin their change of state at the same temperature. Although both substances start thawing at the same temperature, and although olive oil liquefies at an even higher temperature than water, the olive oil will liquefy much faster. One can also see that olive oil solidifies from the bottom up, while H₂O solidifies (freezes) from the top down. In addition to forming an insulating layer of air trapped between the ice and the liquid water, it exposes the ice to the spring sun so that it warms up first and then melts. It is this phenomenon that keeps lakes and northern oceans from freezing solid, something they would do if water behaved like other liquids.

It also requires a lot of energy to freeze H₂O. The latent heat of fusion for H₂O

is 80 calories/gram. This means that it takes as much energy to freeze a single gram of water as it does to lower the temperature of 80 grams of water by 1^o Celsius. (A calorie is the energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1^o C. A food calorie is actually a kilocalorie or 1000 calories). It takes an equal amount to liquefy water from snow or ice.

Likewise, water has a high "latent heat of vaporization". This is the amount of energy required to change water from its liquid state to water vapor. At 35^o C., a warm summer day (95^o F.), it requires 580 calories to evaporate a single gram of water. To you and I this means that one-gram of sweat cools 580 grams of water (slightly more in body mass) by 1^o C. In familiar terms, a teaspoon of sweat will cool 12 pounds of body mass by 1^o F., lucky for us.

Water will fall as snow when the temperature approaches 32^o F., something that frequently occurs in the southwestern mountains. That the temperature range of the earth’s climate allows H₂O to fall as snow, and thus accumulate during the winter, is vastly important to the arid southwest.

The earth’s surface is three quarters water. This affects the earth’s climate in several factors. First, water is a wonderful heat sink. As mentioned earlier, it takes a lot of energy to heat water. You notice this every time you go to a swimming pool or the beach on a hot summer day. The sand or the pavement leading to the water is almost unendurably hot, but the water is deliciously cool. This characteristic serves to moderate the temperature of the earth. It is because Seattle, New York City, and much of Europe are near large bodies of water that they have mild winters, though they are located in the northern latitudes.

The same atmosphere that captures and retains the solar heat also plays a vital role in the transportation and distribution from the oceans to the land.³ The vast oceans provide a lot of surface area for water to evaporate into the atmosphere. Air is evaporated from the oceans, and is carried by the winds to the continents. The forces behind the winds are the temperature gradient between the polar regions, and the rotation of the earth from west to east. The winds carry this water-laden air over the landforms. Warm air holds lots of water, cool air less. For every 1000’ that air rises, it cools off 3.6^o F. The San Juan Mountains rise to heights of more than 14,000’. Wheeler Peak in the Sangre de Cristos rises to over 13,000’. As the air hits these barriers, it is forced to rise. As it rises, it cools. If the air is saturated with water vapor, it must rid itself of this as it cools. In the winter, this precipitates out as snow. It is this characteristic that allows water to be stored in the mountains, and then released in the spring and early summer when plants and agricultural societies can use it to grow and irrigate plants, as well as to quench our thirst. The latent heat of vaporization and latent heat of fusion also moderate or slow down the rate at which snow melts or sublimates (passes directly from solid to vapor), and thus serves to create the aforementioned "time capsule" of water flow.

When water falls, it takes a variety of paths. Initially, much of it will percolate into the soil, where it will be bound to the soil or travel down into the aquifer. Plants will absorb this water through their root systems and transpire it or incorporate it, along with CO₂ into carbohydrates. When the soil become saturated, it will form rivulets (runoff) and flow into arroyos, creeks or gullies. Water in the creeks and arroyos will obey Newton, forming tributaries to ever larger bodies of water, such as rivers or lakes. Roots, humus or organic matter, and vegetation, slow the water’s velocity and hold the soil in place. Disturbances to the plant community increase erosion and add to the siltation of the rivers and reservoirs. In times of flooding, the rivers will overflow their channels and deposit material that they have carried from the uplands. In the past, this flooding has rebuilt and revitalized the fertile floodplain soils, simultaneously adding material to the underlying aquifer.

The Rio Grande does indeed have a deep aquifer underlying it. It was the Rio Grande and ancient rivers that created this aquifer, carrying loose eroded material from the highlands, and depositing it in its channel. Before the Cochiti Dam was built, the Rio Grande had to be dredged to allow the river clearance to flow. At times, the bottom of the Alameda Bridge was but a meter above the riverbed. The Rio Puerco, which remains undammed, is responsible for half of the sedimentation of Elephant Butte Reservoir, though it contributes only 6% of the water flow. ⁴ The dams have not stopped erosion. They have merely changed the depository of the sediment. We still have alluvial fans flowing from the canyons. But flood plains have been replaced by alluvial lakes that underlie all the great reservoirs of the world. As of 1987, Elephant Butte Reservoir had 20% of its storage capacity replaced by siltation, the process by which river water deposits its load of sediment when its energy is stopped by the still backwaters of a reservoir.⁵

Today, the Rio Grande, along with a myriad of other western rivers has been leveed, channelized and dammed. These developments have led to changes in the riparian communities downstream. We shall examine these changes later.

The Rio Grande drains a huge amount of real estate, much of it snow capped mountains that lay upstream of Albuquerque. It is this drainage, and the chemical properties of water, that have permitted societies to live in the arid Rio Grande Valley for a millenia.

2. Provide forest service maps of the Four Corners area, Gunnison Basin Area and Carson National Forest.⁶ Have students delineate the boundaries of the Rio Grande and Colorado River drainages. Also use this as an opportunity to explain the Continental Divide.

2. Measure the river current. The river current is not uniform. It is slower at the margins and above shallow sandbars, where the drag is large, and swifter in the main channel. A simple measure would be to drop a stick in the main channel and measure its distance traveled in 10 seconds and divide to get speed in feet/second. Multiply this by the cross-sectional area to obtain a crude estimate of cfs. A better measure would be to divide the river into sections and measure the current in each section. Calculate the cfs for each section, and sum the sections.

How has channelization and damming of the Rio Grande affected the riparian community? Three trees dominate the Rio Grande bosque: the indigenous cottonwood, the exotic tamarisk with its pink flowers, and the sweet smelling Russian Olive. If you observe the cottonwood orchards, you will notice they are all of the same height throughout the entire length of the bosque. This would indicate a similar age. Cottonwoods live in a seemingly dry desert because they have tapped into the water table. In order for the tap root to reach the water table, it must have a time period where the soil above the water table is saturated with water. If the young root can then outrace the drying out of the upper level of soil moisture, it will have a permanent source of water. If it loses the race, it loses its life.

Floods were the source of this water saturation of soils in the bosque. By observing when cottonwoods release their seeds, the natural time of periodic flooding can be determined. Evolutionarily thinking, those cottonwoods that cast their seeds to the wind at the precise time that floods generally occurred would perpetuate their flood-timed genes in the gene pool. Those whose timing was somewhat flawed would have their genes removed from the population. Floods occur when today’s cottonwoods bloom. Rio Grande cottonwoods release their bloom in early June.

But dams have stopped the floods. The cottonwood orchards in Albuquerque date to 1941, the last year the river overflowed its levees and flooded Albuquerque. By 1957, the river had been thoroughly channelized. Cochiti Dam was completed in 1975.¹⁰ Barring some severe catastrophe I don’t even dare to contemplate, the Rio Grande will not flood in our lifetimes. This "benefit" to us, however, spells the doom of the cottonwood forests. Cottonwoods have a maximum life of about 130 years.¹¹ Thus, in 70 years, this rare cottonwood ecosystem may very well be history.

In order to thwart this prognosis, attempts are being made to establish young orchards of cottonwoods. If one strolls through the bosque, young cottonwoods can be seen uniformly spaced in clearings. A hole is augured through the soil to reach the water table, and a mature sapling is then placed in this hole. With its root immediately placed in the water table, it need not wait for the flood that will never come. This is an admirable attempt at restoring a healthy natural community in the bosque, but it is flawed. Cottonwoods set out billions of seeds each spring, and only those seeds that found prime spots, and had suitably adapted genes, would survive. We have decreased the gene pool, decreased the numbers of trial and error growing sites, and undone the evolutionary process.

In addition to undoing the natural cycle of the bosque, we have introduced exotic species into the bosque that dramatically change environment. Two introduced trees to the bosque are the Russian Olive and the Tamarisk or Salt Cedar. These trees grow extremely dense stands, and change the environment around them to exclude new growth by other species. As a result, dense thickets of salt cedar and Russian Olive are increasing their habitat at the expense of the open, aging, Cottonwood orchards.

Humans have lived in the Rio Grande Valley for thousands of years, but attitudes towards water and weather have not always been comparable. Weather forecasters today describe cloudless warm days as beautiful, and use "ugly" to describe days of lingering, cold rain. We live in a culture that contrarily worships ample sun, lush greenery, and water without rain. Nancy Griffith writes in "Trouble in the Field" about today’s young people who "never want the rain to fall, or the weather to get colder," because we are removed from the environment that is healed by the rains and rejuvenated by the winter. Because we turn a knob clockwise, and water flows effortlessly until we turn the knob counterclockwise, water is unappreciated and undervalued. It was not always so.

A visit to Kuau, a pueblo located on the banks of the Rio Grande in what is today Bernalillo, allows one to contemplate factors which were taken into account to determine settlement sites. Standing in the coolness provided by the sunken Kiva, one also comes to appreciate the reverence that the former residents bestowed on water. The wall of the Kiva is a circular series of murals. Streams of black dots fan out from the mouths of bird and human figures. My first impression was that the stream represents an energy source flowing either into or from the creatures. The explanation given by caption in the mural museum is that the expanding streams represent rain. And then I realize, perhaps wrongly, but it suits my psyche, that the artists believed rain to be the force responsible for the essence of life and of the soul.

Water signs are represented in almost every mural in the Kiva. Lightning bolts energize ollas, or water jugs. Clouds are formed into altars. The same form of water drops fanning out from mouths of living creatures also flow from painted pots. Outside we were given audio evidence of the reverence for water, music for a cloud dance, as we looked over the Rio Grande and the green ribbon of cottonwoods that ran along either bank.

Earlier inhabitants of the southwestern deserts lived in semi-permanent communities such as Kuau. They would settle by a water source, and live off the resources until they had depleted the neighboring land of firewood and game, and exhausted the soils of their nutrients and made their croplands saline with irrigation. They might live a few generations at one site before abandoning it for another watershed. In time, the land they had left would be rejuvenated by fresh growth, animal reproduction and migration. The river would flood, settling rich dirt upon the flood plains, junipers and pinons would once again grow to such a size as to provide firewood opportunities, and eventually, the people could rotate back onto its land.

Today, settlements are permanent. The lifestyles, property laws, and the sheer numbers of our society do not permit abandoning homes, much less, entire cities, every few generations. Today, we still deplete the soil, but rely on chemical fertilizers to provide the nutrients. We build homes in the flood plain, and then dam and channelize the river so as to protect our homes. The consequence of this action is that no new soil is added. In fact, our farming practices speed up wind and soil erosion so that our soil is disappearing, adding beauty, perhaps to the sunsets, but depriving our domestic plants of substance.

Also, our predecessors carried all their water. The practice of carrying water is a great teacher of water conservation. I have in the past lived in homes with no indoor plumbing. We carried our water from the city in 5-gallon containers. We cooked, drank, washed dishes, and sponge bathed with this water. (I must also admit that we took showers at the swimming pool and at friend’s homes). We made do on no more than 50 gallons/week. Contrast this to the average American today who uses 188 gallons/day, or even the much praised citizens of Tucson, who are revered for using only 105 gallons/day (a feat I actually do applaud). This use includes residential use, lawn and garden irrigation, and flushing the toilet. One flush of an inefficient toilet equals the amount of water I used in one day.

Because our predecessors carried their water, it was to their advantage to develop efficient uses of water. They planted crops native to the region for basically one reason: they had no choice. But the benefit of having their seed pool limited to native plants was that these plants had evolved and adapted water saving methods. Desert plants have evolved several strategies to conserve water: small leaves, succulent leaves, no leaves, leaves that grow quickly after a rain (ocotillo). They have also developed efficient methods of gas exchange (breathing) that serve to conserve water. Corn is a C₄ plant, so named because it absorbs CO₂ initially in a four-carbon chain, in contrast to a three-carbon chain that most plants utilize.¹² C₄ plants use water 50 to 300% more efficiently than C₃ plants. Cacti use an even more water efficient method of gas exchange by "breathing" at night when humidity is higher, and storing it until it can be utilized during the day. CAM plants, as these are called, are seven to 18 times more efficient than C₃ plants.

In addition to choosing water-conserving plants, they developed water efficient irrigation methods. The Zuni waffle garden sinks small foot square plots into the ground. Each plant receives its own dose of water, and each section of soil is less exposed to the drying sun than the soil around it.

Today’s farmers practice flood irrigation on water loving crops that are planted in furrows that are highly exposed to the sun. They take their water allotment when it is available, whether they need it or not. Agriculture is the largest user of water in the region.

In addition, the local communities have used water, our most limited resource (along with tax credits), to lure high water use industries such as computer chip makers (Intel) and dairy farms to settle here. Settle here, that is, until the water becomes appropriately valued or scarce, at which time, Intel and the other industries will revert to the ways of the pueblos and migrate to another watershed or tax base.

While city residents do not waste water on the massive scale that agriculture and certain other industries do, they (we) do not give it the reverence it deserves. The task, then, in this day and age when the average person feels so insignificant that they feel whatever one person does is useless, is to create an attitude that values water, and thus conserves it. We need to create a society that doesn’t water in the middle of a rainstorm, nor use water as a broom, to wash away dirt from their driveway (and move it to the next driveway or curbside downstream or downstreet).

Water is too marvelous a substance to be underappreciated. We can survive without cars and gasoline, without television and malls, and without the pollution which they all contribute to. We can not survive without water. The following exercise is designed to instill an appreciation of water and value its conservation.

4. The challenge, for extra credit, would be to reduce per capita use of water by 7% for 25 extra credit points, 12% would receive 50 extra credit points. Evaluation would be examination of monthly water bills. Students could earn these extra credit points any month of the school year. I would rationalize these additional points by the belief that this exercise is a better application of long lasting knowledge than a test listing ways in which water can be conserved.

Alternative: Many of my students live in apartments that do not have separate water meters. So as to not exclude them, I would have them identify areas of water waste around the school, or around the city, and have them write a letter to the principal, the mayor, or other appropriate person-in-charge, identifying the problem, suggesting solutions to the problem, and stating their opinion as to why this problem should be fixed.

The students will have several types of rocks on their table: quartzite, granite, basalt, limestone, and pumice. When asked to investigate the differences between rocks, students will remark on the patterns evident in the metamorphic quartzite, the crystals in the granite, the gray color and fossil presence in the limestone, the air holes and lightness of pumice, and the black color of the basalt. These observations are all evidence of the origins of these rocks.

Students will conduct a lab to determine the specific gravities of these rocks. In order to do this, they will need to determine the volume of a rock sample. Demonstrate displacement of water by dropping solids (coins) into a graduated cylinder and calculating their volume by the amount water rises in the tube.

Large rocks present a problem in that they don’t fit into a graduated cylinder. Guide students through process by which rock volume can be determined:

6. Calculate density: density = mass (grams)/volume (milliliters).

Students will determine specific densities for three types of igneous rocks; granite, basalt, and pumice. The lab data should show that basalt is denser than granite. The asthenosphere is partially melted and plastic¹³, and is thus influenced by the density of the plates that rest above it. Since basalt is denser than granite, oceanic basalt "floats" lower than the granitic continental plates.

Continental Rise: an analogy

A demonstration to show the differing altitudes of basaltic plates and granitic plates could be performed using a basin of water, a dense hardwood, and a less dense pine wood of identical thicknesses.

The water represents the asthenosphere; the hardwood, the basalt: and the pine represents the granite. Placing them in a basin of water illustrates that the granitic pine "floats" higher than the basaltic hardwood. This illustrates the continents (pine), composed of lighter granite, floating higher on the asthenosphere than the denser basalt (ironwood), that forms the oceans’ floors.

From the balcony outside my second story science classroom, I have a wonderful view of the Rio Grande Rift. It serves as a wonderful backdrop to a lecture and discussion on the formation of the present day landscape. A collection of rocks sits on the table at the edge of the balcony. Beyond the rocks, the students gaze at the Sandia Mountains, easily visible to the east, the valley floor directly north of us, and five volcanic cones that dot the horizon created by the West Mesa.

The collection of rocks that rest on the table include: gray, fossil-bearing limestone; pink, crystallized granite; black basalt; white, light pumice; pummeled alluvial representing eroded granite; sand collected from the Sandia foothills; and several sea shells. Also on the table are a magnet and a bottle of dilute HCl (Hydrochloric acid).

Students are asked where in the landscape they could find the rocks that are resting on the table. Basalt can be found on the West Mesa, granite forms the lower pinkish rock of the Sandias, and limestone can be found capping the Sandia Mountains. The gravel washes down from the mountains and can be found on the lower slopes of the Sandias, and sand is found in the arroyos.

To illustrate the origin of limestone, a drop of HCl is dropped on the seashells, and then onto the four rocks. Only one rock shows the same "fizz" that the seashells display. From this, students will deduce that seashells (or something like them) must have formed the limestone layer. Fossils that are found in the limestone give further evidence to its seafloor origin. But how did an ocean form at the top of mountains?

Using an Aquarium as a container, a fault block is demonstrated. Two sloping wooden blocks, representing the diverging fault.¹⁴ Three 3/4" layers of flour, each layer a different color to represent a different strata, are placed on top of the blocks. The teacher separates the wooden blocks. The energy that causes the separation comes from mantle convection. As one of the blocks is pulled away, the flour falls and becomes thinner, paralleling what has happened over the 25 million years the rift has been separating.

Twenty-five to thirty million years ago, the continent cracked and began to move apart. This separation created a rift that extends from central Colorado to northern Mexico. As the rift separated, the material in the rift zone dropped and spread itself thin to cover the enlarged area created by the rift. At the same time, the eastern section of the plate was uplifted. Thus the Sandia Mountains are capped by limestone at a height of 10,000 feet. The same strata of limestone dropped as the rift separated and can be found 15,000 feet below sea level. Further west, below the Rio Puerco, Pennsylvanean limestone is approximately 4000 feet below sea level. The volcanic cones are also a result of the continental plate separating. Magma is the source for the basalt, and lies below the continental plate. As the plate separates, fissures are created that form conduits that allow the magma to travel to the top of the plate and form volcanic cones. As the strata is the rift dropped, loose eroded material (alluvium) from the Sandia Mountains, and northern mountains (the Jemez, Sangre de Cristos, and San Juans) filled in the rift. This loose alluvium has formed the aquifer that now underlies the Albuquerque basin.

Give students a handout showing a cross section of the Rio Grande Rift. Have students color the granite strata pink (this granite was formed 1.4 Ga (billion years ago). Next students will color the limestone strata, noting that it is nearly the same thickness in all three zones. This limestone layer is approximately 300 million years old. This billion year unconformity was caused by erosional processes that occurred as overlaying rock was stripped away, exposing the granite, and then a sea forming and harboring the life that died and formed a cemetery of sea shells and diatoms that eventually created the limestone strata. Have students color in the other strata that overlay the Pennsylvanean limestone. They will note that the strata to the west of the rift and in the rift zone are approximately the same thickness and display qualities of sedimentary formation. These strata are absent in the Sandia Mountains, illustrating erosional processes that stripped them of these subsequent strata. The ducts that extend from the volcanic cones are shown unbroken. This is evidence of recent formation of the volcanic cones.

The headwaters of the Rio Grande begin in the San Juan Mountains, below Snidom Peak (elevation 14,084 feet). The Continental Divide runs through the San Juan Mountains. Runoff from the western slopes of the San Juans will flow into the San Juan and Animas Rivers, tributaries to the Colorado River. Water on the eastern slopes of the San Juans form the Rio Grande, which flows eastward through southern Colorado, dropping quickly until it reaches Alamosa, Colorado, in the San Luis Valley. At this point, it bends southward and follows the fault-bound valley of the Rio Grande Rift. The Rio Grande also collects water from the Sangre de Cristos and the Jemez Mountains. As the river flows through its channel, its waters percolate into the loose material that lies under it, until the material is saturated. Thus, the aquifer depends not so much on Albuquerque’s climate as it does on the precipitation that falls on the northern mountains in a process described earlier in the paper.

This process started millions of years before habitation by humans. Early human residents relied only on surface water, or on water near enough the surface to be accessed by shallow wells. Thus the aquifer remained fully saturated (charged). Technology provided a means to tap into this aquifer with water pumps. This technology has allowed populations to live in areas with no surface water, and to expand beyond population limits previously allowed by limited surface water.

Presently, Albuquerque is using more water than can be recharged by the Rio Grande, living beyond our means. As we draw groundwater from the aquifer, the upper alluvium, or aquifer, becomes unsaturated. The Rio Grande then percolates downward. At the same time, dams and irrigation diversions lessen the flow of the Rio Grande. At times, these factors are enough to dry up the Rio Grande between Albuquerque and Socorro. Species that depend upon the river for their existence are threatened. The Rio Grande Silver Minnow can not live out of water. The willow flycatcher nests in the willow trees that are dependent upon the river. As the willows die, the flycatcher loses habitat, and eventually passes into history. ¹⁵

Agriculture accounts for much of the water usage in the Albuquerque Area. Although much of the water used in irrigation comes not from the aquifer, but directly from the river channel, its removal depletes water that may recharge the aquifer, or keep the river’s volume adequate to sustain the riparian community.

Industry also competes for water use. Computer chip industries utilize much water for sanitation processes. Intel is a major employer in the area, and has much political power derived from its economic role.

As people immigrated to Albuquerque from more moist environs, they recreated, on their single home plots, the lawns they had grown up with. These plots used grasses that had evolved in areas where water was not the limiting factor. The desert has grasses that evolved where water was limiting, and adapted by evolving methods that conserved water.

Cities also demand neighborhood parks and golf courses, which generally have huge expanses of barefoot friendly grasses.

This is an exercise I have done in the past, adapted from "Project Learning". Each group of five students is given a section of butcher paper. They draw a landscape that reflects the Albuquerque environment. The Rio Grande runs from north to south and bisects the flood plain. An escarpment to the west defines the western limit of the flood plain. The eastern slope is defined by a series of benches, increasing in elevation to the foothills of the Sandias. Students are to then construct a semi-autonomous city upon this landscape. They must decide where to put farmlands, dairies, industries, a power plant, neighborhoods and parks, a wastewater treatment plant, and, yes, they must provide a place for schools.

Although we have a limited supply of life-giving water in our aquifers and flowing in the Rio Grande, that flow will continue long after Albuquerque has been abandoned. Our water supply, and along with that supply, the city of Albuquerque is finite, but time is infinite. Hopefully, Albuquerque will not be too finite, but its destiny rests in the hands of our predecessors, today’s residents, and the planning for and by the residents of tomorrow.

The group will then either vote or reach by consensus upon a plan to be implemented by the city. The mayor will preside over the meeting, and be responsible for drafting the final plan.

During the short course of this seminar, the local newspapers have had front page stories that address the conflicting pressures being placed upon the Rio Grande and its underlying aquifer. The Cottonwood bosque that exists for approximately 150 miles north and south of Albuquerque is a rare biome, but according to a recently completed report, will die if we do not radically change water use patterns. The recommendations were so daunting to officials of Department of Fish and Wildlife, the Army Corp of Engineers, and the Bureau of Reclamation, that they have ordered a new version of the report.

Symptoms of the River’s ill health are the decreasing populations of the Rio Grande silver minnow and the willow flycatcher. Biologists studying the bosque system have recommended, in part: spring flooding that mimic the natural cycle of the river and allow cottonwoods to reseed themselves, and trigger spawning instincts in the silver minnow; widening of the flood plain by moving levees away from the river; and limiting water storage in Elephant Butte Reservoir to keep it from flooding willow stands.

The Colorado River, which is fed by the opposite slope of the San Juans as the Rio Grande, is already a dead river. It dies many miles before it reaches the Gulf of California, and while not paralleling the natural environs, its cadaver should frighten us enough to seek to heal the disease of overdrafting the Rio Grande.

This curriculum unit, in a too short 3-week period, is being designed to give students a sense of the physical and chemical properties of water that permit it to create and host life; identify and appreciate the adaptations and strategies that plants have evolved to sustain themselves in a land of little water; understand human impact upon the aquifer and the Rio Grande riparian community; and finally, to develop the skills and a knowledge of the need to do something about it.

1. Merritts has a good graphic illustration on p. 44 of how temperature and atmospheric pressure affects state of H₂O. The earth is the only planet in the solar system that lies in the liquid water phase of the graph.

2. Also on p. 44 in Merritts are facts and figures of how water is distributed in the hydrosphere.

3. Chapter 2 of Young’s Sowing the Wind gives an easy to read explanation of how and why winds move, and the discovery of the jet stream by the Japanese in WWII and their application of that knowledge.

4. A photo of this is shown on p. 437 in Water in New Mexico, Clark, 1987. A photo on p. 280 shows a wide arroyo of the Rio Puerco.

5. For a list of diminishing capacities in western reservoirs, see pp. 491-2, Cadillac Desert.

6. Gunnison Basin Area Map shows Rio Grande Drainage in the San Juan Mountains. Carson National Forest Map shows Rio Grande Drainage of the lower San Juans in New Mexico and the Sangre de Cristos in northern New Mexico.

7. The Adobe Whitewater Club maintains a website at "http://www.thuntek.net/~trobey/awc.html" that shows weekly river flow information in graphic form, and compares it to average flows for the same time period. Whitewater clubs in other locations might contain similar information for rivers of local interest. If not, contact USGS (U. S. Geologic Service) for information.

8. Verner has a fine illustration on pages 9 and 10, showing the tributaries to the Rio Grande in Colorado and New Mexico north of San Marcial. Page 72 graphs annual discharge of the Conejos River at Mogote, Colorado, and the Rio Grande at Del Norte, Colorado. The Conejos River is a free flowing river, has few diversions, and is therefore most representative of precipitation and drainage patterns of the Upper Rio Grande Basin. Although much of this text is highly technical, pages 88-93 provide useful information on precipitation patterns in the Rio Grande Watershed and is easy (well, easier) reading.

9. I used five gauging stations: Rio Chama at El Puente, Rio Chama below Abiqui Dam, Rio Grande at Taos Junction Bridge, Rio Grande below Cochiti, and Rio Grande at Albuquerque. This can be on ongoing activity throughout the year. On Thursday of each week, students could analyze the graphs and reflect on the weather conditions that week that caused the river fluctuations.

10. The Bosque Education Guide, p. 43, has a time line of historic flooding of the Rio Grande.

11. Molles, in Ecology, pp. 192-3 describes graphically the aging of the "most extensive cottonwood forests remaining in the southwestern United States" that are growing (or dying) in the Middle Rio Grande Basin in central New Mexico.

12. Molles, pp. 138-40, has fine illustrations that show the strategies and physiology used by plants to conserve water.

13. Merritts, pp. 38-9, has explanation and cross sections of earth to show differing chemical physical properties of the layers of the Earth.

14. Merritts, p. 105, has an illustration upon which could construct the rift model. Using a 2 x 6 x 12" pine board, make diagonal cuts to create 3 sections of board, the middle section a "V" shape. Cut and remove the lower 3" of the middle section so that it may drop as the edges separate.

15. See "The Dying River Needs Changes," Albuquerque Journal, June 27, 1999; pp. 1, 12-13.

Electrolysis demonstration:

2 electrodes, a 6-volt battery, Barium sulfate (a salt necessary for the flow of electrons: distilled water is an excellent insulator, and thus will not allow electrons to flow through it), two test tubes and matches. It will take at least a full hour to collect the gases necessary to make a satisfactory "pop!" to amaze and amuse your students, so start this early on, and come back to it during your lecture on "the wonders of water" to explore what is happening and why.

Changes of State Demonstration

Two identical transparent containers: one containing solid H₂O (otherwise known as ice) and one containing solidified olive oil (place in freezer so that the beginning temperature is the same. This demo can be done in the same class period as the electrolysis demonstration, and it is a slow process. One will see the olive oil melts rapidly and from the top down, ice much more slowly and from the bottom up.

Watersheds

Maps of Colorado and New Mexico, showing rivers and dams. Forest Service Maps of the Gunnison, San Juans, and Carson and Santa Fe National Forests (the Jemez Mountains are located in the Jemez. A topographic map of a region students will be visiting on a field trip would be beneficial in locating their place, understanding contour lines and topographic features, and identifying drainages.

A transparent grid done on a scale one grid equals a township (6 miles square or 36 square miles). The instructor could use this as a taking off point to explain how the lands were platted and ownership distributed in the old West.

River flows:

Weekly data, in graph form, is available from the Adobe Whitewater Club’s website "http://www.thuntek.net/~trobey/awc.html". I would suggest tapping into the website on late Wednesday or early Thursday, thereby maintaining a complete set of data. For instructors outside of the Rio Grande Drainage, I would suggest contacting your local whitewater club. Their websites are great sources for this information, because of the importance of up-to-the-minute flow data necessary for calculating decision to call in sick.

Rocks

People outside Albuquerque will have to find their own rocks. In Albuquerque:

• limestone from the east side of the Sandias - it’s quite easy to find rocks containing fossils
• granite from the eastern slope of the Sandias;
• while on the eastern slope, also contain some loose gravel and sand (magnetite can be extracted from the sand with a magnet)
• basalt from the Volcanoes area;
• pumice and metamorphic rocks can be found in the Rio Grande flood plain.

You will also need the following equipment (one per group)

• graduated cylinder
• beaker (large enough to hold rock sample
• triple beam balance (or some other scale accurate to 0.1 gram)

Density demo

• Two blocks of wood, one pine and one dense hardwood. They must be of identical thicknesses.
• A basin of water.

Intercontinental Separation: Rift Demonstration

• Aquarium
• Wood or glass backing
• 2 x 6 x 12" wood
• colored flour

The Bosque Education Guide: An Environmental Education Program to Teach About the Riparian Forest Within the Middle Rio Grande Valley. Albuquerque: U. S. Fish and Wildlife Services, October, 1995.

Clark, Ira G. Water in New Mexico: A History of Its Management and Use. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987.

Merritts, Dorothy; DeWet, Andrew; and Menking, Kirsten. Environmental Geology. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1998.pp. 29-60, 102-119. Good text and excellent illustrations of the hydrologic cycle and plate tectonics.

Parfit, Michael. Sharing the Wealth of Water. National Geographic Special Edition. November, 1993. pp. 20-36.

Parfit, Michael. When Humans Harness Nature’s Forces. National Geographic Special Edition. November, 1993. pp. 56-65.

Reisner, Marc. Cadillac Desert. New York: Viking, 1986.

Verneer, Jetton Elden. Climatology of the Upper Rio Grande Basin and the Development of Spring Runoff Forecast Equations. Ann Arbor, Michigan: U M I Dissertation Services, 1973.

The River: A Seventh Grade Inter-disciplinary Curriculum for the Rio Grande. 110 Vuelta Montuoso; Santa Fe, New Mexico 87501 ( 505) 983-5428. Project Crossroads, circa 1993.

Rosner, Hy and Rosner, Joan. Albuquerque’s Environmental Story. Albuquerque: Albuquerque Public Schools, 1985.

Taugher, Mike. Report: Dying River Needs Changes. Albuquerque Journal. 119th year, no. 178. June 27, 1999. pp. A1, A12-13

Young, Louise B. Sowing the Wind. New York: Prentice Hall Press, 1990.

Cadillac Desert. Corporation for Public Broadcasting.

Nova Water Crises. Time Life.

Merritts, Dorothy; DeWet, Andrew; and Menking, Kirsten. Environmental Geology. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1998.pp. 29-60, 102-119. Good text and excellent illustrations of the hydrologic cycle and plate tectonics.

Young, Louise B. Sowing the Wind. New York: Prentice Hall Press, 1990.

Unit Goals: 1. Make science relevant to the student’s everyday life.
Show that science is everywhere.
Unit Objectives: The student will be able to:
Create a timeline of local geologic history
Create a local anthropological timeline
Describe and understand different soil profiles and horizons from different areas
Develop an understanding of the soil forming processes
Relate soil formation to climate
Describe how humans impact a given study site
Recognize any important mistakes made in the past that affect the environment for which we are paying today
Select, evaluate, and defend a stance on the local uses of soil (Farm land vs. Housing development)
Develop public speaking skills as well as skills in other disciplines

Target Population

The unit targets freshman-level high school students who live in or near areas of increased urbanization. A class size of twenty students allows sufficient time for in-depth debates.

Unit Length

The unit will be designed to last three to four weeks; however, the geologic timeline is a project that requires all year. The anthropological time line will also be an on going project. The actual time spent on the debates and researching the human impacts will be up to the students, if there is high interest, then longer time will be allotted.

Brief Geologic History

This unit assumes that the major portions of geologic history have already been covered. The main focus of this unit is the Quaternary Period. The Quaternary Period can be further divided into two epochs, Pleistocene, and Recent. The geologic history that is responsible for the majority of northern Illinois’ soil formation takes place during the Pleistocene, or Ice Age. During this time, massive sheets of ice descended from the north. The Keewatin Center, located in central Canada, was the source of the sheet of ice that covered much of north central United States (Spaulding & Namowitz, 1997). The massive ice sheets made four major advances and retreats on the northern United States during a million year time period of global warming and cooling. The final glacial maximum, around 22,000 to 14,000 years ago, developed from the Laurentide ice sheet (Merrits et al, 1998). During this time much of the mid-west was covered with ice. The last major glacier receded around 11,000 years ago.

The ice sheets not only scraped the landscape away, but it also scraped the bedrock and helped speed the physical weathering processes. The fine particles trapped in the ice sheets scraped and carved their way across the north central states and created some of the most fertile soils. A clear understanding of glacial action is required to set the foundations for comprehension of soil formation.

Soils are formed by the disintegration of rocks and minerals. As one can see, the climate is a major factor in soil development. Soils are very different from location to location. The soil basics that are outlined here are meant as an introduction to soil science. Soil is arranged in different layers and zones called profiles and horizons, respectively. The profiles can be thought of as the "big picture." This is what most people are familiar with seeing while passing a road cut or a construction site. The different layers of colored soil are what scientists call the soil profile. The horizons are the individual layers or "pieces" that make up the entire profile. The most common horizons, from the surface down, are the O horizon, A horizon, B horizon, and C horizon.

The O horizon can be found at the upper most part of the pedosphere. This horizon is composed of mostly decaying organic material, hence the name O horizon. This horizon is very dependent on moisture. Desert soils often lack an O horizon because the rate of decomposition differs between arid climates and moist climates.

The second horizon is the A horizon. This layer is also known as topsoil. This material is rich with organic material and in some locations is high in minerals. This location has high activity on both the biological and geological spectrum. Many animals and insects live and burrow in this horizon. The roots of many plants penetrate into this horizon seeking out the moisture and minerals that they need to sustain life. The geological activity is also busy. The formation of new soils between the O horizon and the A horizon is an exciting process. This is where new soil is being formed! Minerals from the A horizon leach into the next horizon, the B horizon.

At the B horizon, the materials are transported from the upper layers into this depositional horizon. In arid climates, one can find deposits of calcium carbonates (CaCO₃). These white, chalky, materials will effervesce when hydrochloric acid is introduced to their surfaces. As water percolates through the soil and encounters calcium carbonate, calcium hydrogencarbonate [Ca(HCO₃)₂] is formed. This substance is also known as hard water (Brimblecombe et al, 1998). The solution reaches certain areas of the soil where the water can no longer descend. As a result, the solution begins to form a deposit. As the water slowly evaporates, the calcium carbonate is left behind.

Finally, the boundary between the parent rock (bedrock) and the C horizon becomes less apparent. The C horizon usually contains highly weathered and fractured bedrock mixed with soil. The question then arises, is the soil formed from the bottom up, or from the top down? The soil conservation activity might give us some clues.

The basic knowledge of soil is the start of a wonderful journey into learning what is really going on inside the earth. We need to look and start at the surface because this is where all the sciences (Biology, Chemistry, Geology, Meteorology, and Physics) come together. A good link for more soil information is: http://www.esf.edu/pubprog/brochure/soilph/soilph.htm

Brief Anthropological History

The unit assumes that there is some prior knowledge of the evolution of humans from Australopithecus through Homo sapiens. This topic is covered when talking about the rise of mammals during the Cenozoic Era.

Agriculture has been an integral part of American history since the 16^th century, and prehistoric agriculture dates back another 1000 years. The environmental effects of agricultural activities are seen in the farmer’s progress. The more "advanced" humans become the more adverse are the effects on the environment. The roots of agriculture stem back thousands of years. The earliest human ancestors were hunter-gatherers, a cultural adaptation requiring nomadism. Following domestication of livestock, nomads followed the herd as it foraged the landscape for food. A more readily available food source enabled larger and more families, thereby supporting larger population growth. The innovation of crop cultivation provided an even more readily available, stable food source, enabling permanent settlements. Thus our first small "towns" began to form and the human population increased more. Increasing population, unfortunately, further increases stress on the environment.

One theory in cultural anthropology is that the early humans actually worked harder as farmers than as hunter-gatherers. The theory proposes that the people that are presently nomadic have more hours of free time and a stronger family. I would venture to say that the impacts the nomadic tribes have on the environment are significantly less than the traditional or modern farms. This does not mean that nomads were completely environmentally friendly; I just think that their stresses on the environment were less severe as compared to the stresses that "advanced" humans place on the environment.

As the ancient farms grew so did the human population. Taking a great leap in history through the scientific revolution (1650-1800) and the industrial revolution (1700’s-current?), the agricultural revolution targeted the temperate grasslands. In the temperate grassland, the farms create a surplus of grains and vegetables for the world population. Farming has negatively influenced the soils in the grassland. Molles, (1999) for example notes that, "prairie soils have lost as much as 35% to 40% of their organic matter in just 35 to 40 years of cultivation." Molles also wonders if the environment will be able to sustain the agricultural needs of the human population. It seems that the environment is "the one" who is losing here.

One of the largest sprawling megalopolis is around Chicago. The surrounding land was once rich prairie that had small localized farms. But as Chicago grew the people had to live somewhere. So they moved out of the city. As more and more people moved out, more and more land was taken for housing developments. The developers had no regard for the environment. Their only regard was for the all mighty dollar. Care was not taken for wetlands or valuable farmland. An interesting catch-22 was beginning that still exists today. If the developers build nice communities and nice roads, then people will move out of the city and into a nice suburb. If the developers build them too nice then everybody will see the nice roads, schools, and houses and subsequently want to move into the development. So as a result more developments are built, and more people move out of the city. The traffic then gets so bad, that the infrastructure can’t handle it. This in turn makes the people unhappy. Didn’t they move out to the suburbs to get away from all the traffic and to get away from the city?

The area around Chicago is growing incredibly fast. The population is reaching a critical point. Cement and asphalt, all to support Chicago’s growing population, are now covering the land that was once fertile grassland. Ground water and water tables are reaching critical levels of stress. Meanwhile, the global human population is increasing exponentially at a surprising rate. "Like all other species, humans compete for and use essential resources-air, water, food, and space" (Merrits et al. 1998). Wouldn’t some scientists argue that competition is what allows certain species to continue replication and other species to perish? As humans do we have the right to decide what species continue and which ones perish?

Unit Rationale

Because human activity in the area has increased over the past twenty to thirty years (possibly more), the unit will focus on what exactly the humans have been doing recently to impact the environment. The two major goals of my class are to make science relevant to the students and show them that science is everywhere. I think that by studying the area that the students live in and by looking at the historical geology of the area, the students will be able to see that science is all around them. The other aspect of teaching historical geology to the students is now they can see why the landscape looks like it does today, and what it will look like in the future. By looking at the geological history of the area we can then see how the anthropological history fits into the story. I will ask questions such as, why did people choose to live here instead of there, and what are the results of people farming this area, and not this one? I really want to make the students think about what kinds of things are going on and show them that this "stuff" directly relates to them.

Activities

The following section contains many step-by-step lesson plans and lesson plan ideas that will be used for this unit.

Localized Geologic timeline (on going)
This activity will be a project that starts with the formation of the earth and works forward from there.
Objectives: The Student Will Be Able To:
Create a timeline that shows significant events in geologic history
Explain the different divisions of geologic time
"Rebuild" local geologic history from the literature
Materials: Paper, colored pencils, geologic maps of local area, reference materials
Procedure: There can be a variety of ways for doing this activity. One method I have seen is by using register tape and making a time frame equal to a distance. I don’t think this would be effective for this activity. I think a whole class demonstration of geologic time would be effective for showing how great the time span has been from the formation of the earth to the present. Ideally the entire classroom would be the timeline. The line can span across all four walls (space permitting) with sections designated for each era, period, and any other designations. This timeline would not be to scale, so it should be made apparent to the students that 1 meter is not 1 billion years. (If a time/distance scale is used, much of the information about the present will have to be squeezed into an area that is about the thickness of a paper.) Then as the students work on different periods their work will be posted at or under the proper location. The students will find or draw pictures of items or themes that represent the units of time.

Modifications: This activity can be assigned to each individual student (meaning each student is responsible for each era) or individual time units can be assigned to groups. I prefer the group assignments because then the students can present or teach their time units to the rest of the class. The variety of ways the students develop their presentations will also make this activity interesting. For interdisciplinary activities, see the next activity.

This activity will be a project that starts when humans arrived in the local area. This activity is a continuation of the above activity. It can also stand by itself. This activity allows for interdisciplinary study between earth science and the local history.
Objectives: The Student Will Be Able To:
Create a timeline that shows significant events in the local history
Explain why each event is significant
Compile the information into the "grand scheme" of geologic history
Materials: Paper, colored pencils, reference materials from or a guest speaker from local historical society
Procedure: This activity is pretty straightforward. The students find significant events, explain why they are significant, and draw or find pictures to describe the events. They then fit these events onto a larger timeline of the geologic history. Although humans have been around for a relatively short amount of time, the impacts of their activity can be seen at a local level as well as a global level.
Modifications: This activity is not limited to the local scale; it can be carried out at the global scale as well. The students can find world events that span the history of humans and fit them onto a time scale. For ideas about ways to display time scale see the lesson above on the geologic time scale.

These activities are borrowed from an introductory soil course. They can found in "Introductory Soil Science." To avoid copyright laws, I am not going to reprint the lab activities. These activities are the "meat" of this unit. I will, however, summarize and describe the objectives of these lab activities.
Lab Names (the objectives and descriptions follow the lab names)
Soil Parent Materials: Develop an understanding of the soil formation process. This activity is very similar to the activity below called "Soils and Their Parents."
Soil Structure: Understand how soil structure relates to soil texture and understand other soil properties. In this activity the students test the soils for different densities, pore spaces, stability of soil aggregates, strength, and permeability.
Soil Water: Understand the energy relationships of water in soil and understand some of the factors associated with ground water contamination. This activity requires the students to find different capacities for water. The students investigate how water behaves in different soils through different types of calculations.
Soils and Landscapes: Observe the patterns of soils occurring on various landscapes and understand that the characteristics of soil can be predicted from location. This activity requires the students to go around to different landscapes and observe the different types of soils and see how they formed. Pictures can be substituted for field trips.
Soil Profile Characteristics: Understand the differences that exist between soils and understand how soil characteristics affect the suitability of different soils for various uses. Here the students experience first hand what a soil profile looks like and they observe the different horizons. This is an out-of-the-classroom-experience where the students get dirty and look at soil in the field.
Soil Conservation: Explain the differences between tolerable and excessive rates of soil loss and learn how to predict soil loss for a given area. The students read about soil conservation and then learn how to calculate soil loss for given areas. This activity involves math and is an eye opening experience to see how much soil we are losing and why we need to conserve.

Soils and Their Parents
This exploratory activity is designed to let the students "play with" soils and rocks. See the lab activity above called "Soil Parent Material."
Objectives: The Student Will Be Able To:
Identify major rock forming minerals (prior knowledge or activity)
Identify minerals in different soils
Trace the steps of weathering from parent rock to soil
Materials: Different types of soil, Different parent rocks, hand lenses, Soil color chart (if available), hydrochloric acid in eyedroppers, Mineral identification guide (if available), colored pencils
Procedure: This activity is meant to get the students’ hands dirty. They should play with different types of soils and look at different types of rocks. Each sample should be placed at different location around the classroom. The students should then make as many observations as possible about each type of soil and parent rock. Have them create a chart that helps them observe the samples. Possible categories could be any of the mineral identification criteria, a sketch of the sample, or any guesses they have about the parent rock. A quick review of minerals might be helpful.
Modifications: A neat demonstration would be to take a rock and smash it into pieces and keep smashing it until it is completely disintegrated. Then have the students pick up the pieces and make observations from the demolished rock (sedimentary rocks are ideal). For added theatrical effect, one can play the disco-funk song, "Pick Up the Pieces."

Soils Profiles and Soils Horizons
The students will create their own soil horizons and profiles of different areas, particularly areas of prairie soils, farmland soils, and urbanized soils. Objectives: The Student Will Be Able To:
Create a soil profile from different locations
Describe each horizon in the profile
Explain the significance of climate on soil formation
Materials: Clear two-liter bottles (3 for each profile), different soils, minerals, and rocks, cement, reference materials
Procedure: This activity requires some background investigation as to what soil really looks like. In order to accomplish this we must dig up soil, or find locations where the soil is exposed. Construction sites are ideal for exposed soil. The two-liter bottles must be cut so they can be stacked on top of each other so that one continuous profile can be made. This activity has three basic requirements: it must be 3-D (taken care of right of the bat), it must be realistic (to scale), and it will be orally presented to the instructor. The students will need to build the profile, horizon by horizon, from the bedrock up to the surface. Each group of students should construct their profiles and then they must verbally explain their profile to the instructor. During the explanation, the students should somehow relate climate to soil formation, and should be able to explain each horizon. This activity is great for incorporating the Multiple Intelligences Theory. It is great because it tests other intelligences (visual/spatial, verbal/linguistic, artistic) instead of the usual logical-mathematical model of assessment.
Modifications: The students might enjoy digging up different areas for an independent study on soils. This should be encouraged! This activity is a great opportunity for small field trips around the school or around the town; it all depends on school location. Other materials could be used instead of dirt; food for instance, might be a fun medium to use for demonstration purposes. Any other type of material could be used to hold the profile instead of the two-liter bottles. I like the bottles because they act almost like a "soil-core" sample.

Guest Speakers
Guest speakers give the students a chance to see that people have jobs in different fields of science. The guest speakers would come from a variety of sources. They should come from both sides of environmental arguments. For example, someone from Chemlawn (a company that sells "green" lawns) could speak to the students about the environmental impacts of their company. Then getting someone from a local environmental group to speak to the students about their findings regarding the impacts of Chemlawn. Then I would like the students to make their own informed decision.

Public Speaking
Debates about certain "controversial" issues.
Objectives: The Student Will Be Able To:
Select, evaluate, and defend a stance on the local uses of soil (Farm land vs. Housing development)
Develop an organized presentation on land uses and the resulting impacts
Follow the conventions of public speaking for a formal debate on assigned topics.
Materials: Library or Research time, posters boards, markers, PowerPoint (if available)
Procedures: This activity is highly student-centered. The students can work in groups or individually. The topics are at the teacher’s discretion. Some possible topics: Housing Developments vs. Farmland, Ground water usage by big corporations (Pro’s and Con’s), Public water usage vs. Private water usage, Organic Farming vs. Commercial Farming, or City Park construction (Pro’s and Con’s) just to name a few. The students should research the topic and debate the issue at hand. They should have visual aides as well as sound data. The students should respond well to these types of activities because they are forced to really care about the topic one way or another.
Modifications: The students could be presenting their information to an imaginary town planning committee, or any other imaginary group, possibly made up of other students in the class. Another possibility could be presenting the topics to another class, possibly younger students. The students not actively involved in the debate process could write a one-page response to the information being resented. This keeps all the students in the class involved rather than the ones who are doing the debating.

The students should also look around the school and see the impacts the school has on the environment. I would like to get the students out of the classroom as much as possible (so they can experience science first hand) to test the soils and describe what humans have done to the local (around the school) geology.

After looking around the school we would go out to the countryside to see what impacts farms and housing developments have on the environment. Here we would also test the soil color, soil pH, and run other simple tests around the area. Any activity designed to get the students out of the classroom and getting their hands dirty.

The unit requires the student to step out of the traditional classroom setting and explore the "real world." The form of assessment that I like to use is performance assessment. I think that having the students do something or make something and explain what they are doing and why they are doing it their way is what life is all about. The traditional forms of assessment, in my opinion, are obsolete in today’s society (maybe they were obsolete years ago too). Why not create assessment relevant to the students’ lives as well as the content?

Another type of assessment that I would like to try is have the students write a one page (no more) reaction paper to the activities, discussions, and debates that we had in class. I think that maybe one or two of these papers would be a really awesome way to see what is going through the student’s mind. The other great thing is there would essentially be no right or wrong answers, just better answers. By writing a reaction paper, students have to take ownership of the content and really explain the content and explain themselves, both higher order thinking skills. If I can get the students to take a stand, what better way to get them involved with the content and working to make changes in and around their community.

The debates would serve as a culminating activity for this unit. The students would then have a better understanding of what is really going on. I really don’t think any end-of-the-chapter test will give me those kinds of results. The reason I would like them to write a reaction paper is because the student chooses what he/she would like to write about instead of being forced to write about a given topic. The other way I would like to try the assignment would be give the students a list of different types questions to ask their parents, neighbors or other members of the community, questions designed to spark discussion. Then I would like the students to write about their reaction to the discussion. Of course there would be the traditional grading of labs and other activities, but this way is the best for me.

So how can I raise awareness in my students? I think that by having them take an active role in the environmental struggle between urbanization and agriculture, then they will be true environmental advocates.

If you have any questions or comments please feel free to email me at this address: Karlnracheld@msn.com

This teaching unit is an overview of various issues related to the development of the Albuquerque metropolitan region and the relationship of this development with the Rio Grande River. The unit will examine the river as it is today and how it has changed over time. It will consider the origins of the Rio Grande, current uses of the river, and changes that have characterized the river’s form and processes in recent times. The unit will examine the effects that various control techniques have had on the river and the resulting benefits and problems that have occurred due these control efforts. The information described within this curriculum unit will be used to develop lessons that will be used as part of a high school geology curriculum.

The objectives of the unit are:
-Develop student awareness of issues surrounding the Rio Grande and its management.
-Foster critical thinking and problem-solving skills with this developing awareness.
-Integrate related fields of science such as the life sciences, environmental sciences, anthropology and archaeology to the earth science material being covered in the      class.
-Promote a multifaceted approach to teaching science through the use of debate, writing, and hands-on activities.
-Motivate potentially at-risk students by using material and resources that are more relevant and accessible to them and their daily lives.

Background

Surface Water Hydrology and River Morphology

The Rio Grande River is the second longest river in North America, totaling more than 1,800 miles in length. It is second only in length to the Mississippi/Missouri River of the Central U.S.¹ It stretches from the southern Colorado Rocky mountains to the Gulf of Mexico, and is the predominant drainage feature in the state of New Mexico. The river enters the state north of the Rio Grande gorge and flows south through a series of alluvium-filled basins, or troughs, that have been produced by rifting processes over time. The subsequent erosion of the rift alluvium by the river and its tributaries has produced various landforms in and surrounding this basin.² The resulting landforms are often referred to as the Rio Grande Valley. This process of development and deposition in the Rio Grande rift through New Mexico has been occurring for millions of years. The river currently flows through numerous villages, towns and cities of the state, including the city of Albuquerque, and is a major supplier of surface and ground water used residentially, commercially and agriculturally in these areas.

Several major drainages feed into the Rio Grande. North of Albuquerque, these include the Chama and Jemez Rivers. South of the city, they include the Rio San Jose and the Rio Puerco. The combination of these sources has produced a hydrologic resource allowing for more than 2,000,000 acre-feet of water to be withdrawn per year from the Rio Grande basin in New Mexico for a total discharge area of 32,207 square miles.³ Typically the river reaches its highest discharges in the months from April through June, with its peak levels in May. In general, this pattern reflects the annual natural flows of water due to seasonal snowmelt/runoff and summer monsoon precipitation. Natural flows also show a great deal of variation from year to year. This variation is due to periods of drought and other climatic variabilities.

The river known to many Albuquerque inhabitants of today is much different than the river that would have been found in the region hundreds to thousands of years ago. Prior to measurable human habitation along the Rio Grande river and the resulting influence of humans, the Rio Grande could have been described as a "perennially flowing, aggrading river with a shifting sand substrate."⁴ The river’s pattern of flow through the state and through the region at this time was braided and slightly sinuous, depositing a great amount of sediment across the river’s floodplain. Within the valley, the river would have freely migrated and meandered, creating oxbows, side streams, wetland and marsh areas. In fact, evidence of this movement about the valley can be seen in various areas of the city. The Rio Grande’s past floodplain within Albuquerque extends a distance of 10 miles, from as far west as Nine Mile Hill eastward to the University of New Mexico area.⁵

Despite the ability of the river to move about and migrate in the Rio Grande valley, it has experienced periods of stability and equilibrium. During these periods, riparian ecosystems would have had a chance to become established on riverbanks and islands. During periods of instability, however, deposition of sediments and erosion would allow new locations for riparian vegetation to start.⁶ Thus, a picture of a changing Albuquerque and a changing Rio Grande river can be developed. As human influence on the river has increased though, these patterns of change have diminished or stopped completely. The river has within the last hundred years gone from braided and sinuous to flowing in a single channel.

History of the Rio Grande River

The Rio Grande River flows along the Rio Grande valley, but did not actually carve out the depression it follows, except in a minor way.⁷ The river’s course has been determined by the underlying geological features that characterize the rift valley that divides New Mexico geographically into east and west halves. Thus to understand the origin of the river, an understanding of the past geologic evolution of the state is necessary.

Albuquerque and many of the more populated regions of the state lie along the Rio Grande Rift, an area which sits above a segment of the earth’s crust that is slowly being pulled apart and stretched. Unlike typical valleys, the river did not create the valley it flows through. The valley has been forming by way of geological tension processes for hundreds of millions of years. The rift is an area of slowly subsiding rock and sediments that are bordered on either side by uplifting blocks of rock sliding along fault zones. This has resulted in what has been called the "Rio Grande Trough".⁸ The Sandia mountains along the east side of Albuquerque represent one of these uplifting blocks and fault zones. The Rio Grande river itself flows through the lowest area of the trough and has played a major role in slowly filling the valley with soils and sediments. The thickness of these sediment deposits has been estimated to be about 20,000 feet thick. In other words, the same rocks found at the surface of the Sandias can be found roughly 5 miles below the surface of the Albuquerque valley.⁹

The process of filling the rift valley has been occurring for millions of years. As the Rio Grande flows, it carries a considerable amount of mud, sand and gravel. This material, referred to as alluvium, is deposited along its course. Over great lengths of time, a considerable amount of this alluvium is deposited by the river, and it slowly begins filling up the valley that is being formed by the rifting process. In addition, as this deposition happens, some of the water that has carried the sediment is buried underground. This buried water fills in the loose spaces of the alluvial deposits and is the primary source of Albuquerque’s water needs, or its aquifer.

The Middle Rio Grande basin is one of the oldest areas of habitation in the United States. It is also one of the oldest areas of agriculture use. Farming has been carried on in the area for centuries, dating back to the basket-maker cultures of the pre-Pueblo Indians over one thousand years ago, followed by more modern Pueblo groups, and the first Spanish colonists of the 1500’s. Most recently, extensive farming practices have been carried out as new groups began to settle the area in the last half of the 1800’s. The demands on the river for irrigation purposes have grown along this time line. Irrigation of about 20,000 acres was sufficient to support native populations, but this demand grew to more than 125,000 acres by 1880. Use of water from the Rio Grande resulted in a serious deterioration and aggradation of the river to the point that only 40,000 acres of farmland could be irrigated by 1925. This was a result of irrigation upstream from the basin, depletion of downstream riverflows, high sedimentation rates caused by rising riverbeds (aggradation), unstable riverflows, floods, water-logged lands, and urbanization.¹⁰

Since 1925, the State of New Mexico along with the U.S. Department of the Interior has undertaken a program of river development and maintenance that has significantly changed the Rio Grande river in its appearance and behavior. With the formation of the Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District in that year, projects were begun to increase the efficient use of the river. Aspects of this program included the use of dams, El Vado and Caballo, diversion channels, levees, and "jetty jacks" in an effort to control the flow rate of the river and to minimize its impact on the numerous population centers located on and around the river. These facilities aided irrigation but did little to ease water shortages, floods, high water tables and siltation of ditches.¹¹

Because of problems in aggradation and degradation of the river, a joint effort between the Army Corps of Engineers and the Bureau of Reclamation was initiated. As stated in its Environmental Impact Statement from 1976, the Bureau of Reclamation’s purpose in this program has been to (1) more effectively meet New Mexico’s water obligation without curtailment of water use in New Mexico by providing efficient transport of water through the state; (2) conserve both surface and ground water; (3) reduce the rate of aggradation of the Rio Grande floodway; and (4) provide effective flood control. Projects from this association included the construction of Cochiti Dam, a system of flood-control reservoirs on the river and its tributaries, and a rehabilitation of irrigation systems in the district.¹² In addition to limiting the effects of flooding, reservoirs and other river storage and flood control structures have limited some of the effects of climatic variability. Thus, this has insured a more consistent flow of water from year to year to those dependent on the Rio Grande for agricultural, business and residential water needs in this part of the state.

Historically, the Albuquerque area has suffered from major flooding both along the Rio Grande and in the nearby Sandia canyons. Severe floods had occurred in Albuquerque and its surrounding vicinity on a fairly regular cycle, with events taking place in 1874, 1884, 1891, 1903, 1909, 1912, 1920, 1937, and 1940. In the 1874 flood, it was estimated that 24 square miles of water filled the area between Bernalillo and Albuquerque for over 3 months. This was due to what was approximated as an all-time record river flow of more than 100,000 cubic feet of water per second.¹³ During this and other occasions, the Albuquerque Old Town area has experienced dramatic flooding events. The area, which is relatively higher than its local neighborhood, has become an island several times as the water rose in the lower surrounding areas. In fact, this is the reason that the Old Town area is built in this particular location.

As the population of the middle Rio Grande valley increased in the late 1800’s and 1900’s, the demand for water increased as well. The result of this increased demand was to raise the river channel bed and the damaging effects of the river. Because more water was being removed from the river, its sediment carrying capacity was decreased. This in turn brought about the process of silting and clogging of the river channel. Water tables in the areas surrounding the river rose, and farms became waterlogged. Resulting loss of farmland and the increase in swampland led to an all-out effort by city, state and federal governments to control the Rio Grande’s flow. As Kelley states, "the battle was begun to confine the river".

Early attempts to prevent flooding included increasing the height and strength of existing natural levees and the building of parallel storm channels, which also provided drainage for surrounding wetlands and marshes. These areas are now being utilized as working agricultural areas. Flood-control concrete embankments along the eastside of the city were built to capture runoff and divert it to the Rio Grande. The end result of these measures has been the construction of a system that can withstand "100 year floods" as designated by the U.S. Geological Survey.¹⁴

In addition, other methods utilized locally to prevent and limit the effects of flooding have included the construction of a series of drainage ditches, diversion channels, and concrete arroyos, along with the drilling of numerous industrial and municipal wells. The result of this, with accompanying dry periods, has been to lower Albuquerque’s water table. With this drop in the water table, reclamation projects began and the Albuquerque population has now occupied once previous swampland areas of the city’s yazoo or lowlands.¹⁵

In all, the changes that have been instituted along the river have contributed to a controlled and restricted waterway. As such, with these changes over the last 50 years, the Rio Grande river can no longer be truly considered a "naturally flowing river".¹⁶ The elimination of flooding and the restriction of water flow has also led to serious consequences in other areas. These areas are only recently becoming recognized, and questions of past practices of river management have now come under great scrutiny.

Attracting critical examination recently is the importance of "natural disasters" to the health and vitality of ecosystems. The necessity of natural fires for healthy and dynamic forests and grasslands is being better understood and utilized in management practices. Periodic flooding of lowlands is also being analyzed and evaluated as a natural and important part of the river and riparian ecosystem. As Molles says, "Rivers and their floodplains form a complex, highly dynamic landscape that includes river, riparian forest, marsh, oxbow lake, and wet meadow ecosystems. Historically, these ecosystems actively exchanged organisms, inorganic nutrients, and organic energy sources. The key linkage between these landscape elements (has been) periodic flooding." Floods seemingly play a vital part in maintaining the health of these types of ecosystems. Periodic flooding deposits silts for development of soils, and produces oxbow lakes and new river channels which offer new environments for supporting diverse populations of organisms. Floods also increase decomposition rates and help to recycle nutrients back to the ecosystem. Also, many fish are known to utilize floodplains for spawning, and numerous riparian plants require sustained flooding for germination of seeds and early development.

Locally, the bosque forests of the Rio Grande are being studied closely to gain an insight into the importance of periodic flooding. Studies of cottonwoods show that flooding helps their seeds to germinate and is necessary for their establishment. The cottonwood forests of the Albuquerque bosque, for the most part, date back to the early 1940’s when flooding still occurred. Since the construction of the Cochiti dam in 1942, no local flooding has occurred to help establish new growth of these trees. This has also led to the proliferation of non-native species such as the Russian olive and tamarisk.¹⁷ Numerous native animals and plants are dependent upon these riparian forests and wetland areas. As the cyclical cycles of flooding in the lowland areas around the Rio Grande have been eliminated, many species of organisms have also been placed at risk (see attached list of special status animals and plants). In fact certain species of fish, such as the Rio Grande shiner and the shovelnose sturgeon, which were once found in the river, are no longer present.

The extensive networks of diversion channels and dams that control water flow on the Rio Grande in New Mexico have also created a great deal of controversy farther downstream in Texas and Mexico. Limits on the amounts of water allowed to cross the border into El Paso have been criticized by some who propose that the river is not currently managed properly in New Mexico to provide the in-stream flow needed to sustain riparian habitats and agricultural needs in these areas. Water rights controversy has led to heated battles in the courts and news media between parties involved. Claims have been made that while Texas and Mexico have undergone tremendous droughts in the last few years, reservoirs within New Mexico have been full to the point of overflowing because of above average snowfall in the state and in Colorado.¹⁸

In 1993, American Rivers, a U.S. river conservation society listed the Rio Grande/Rio Conchos system as the most endangered river in the country.¹⁹ Concerns were expressed concerning the continued degradation of water quality from pollution due to mining along the northern section of the Rio Grande and industrial and municipal wastes seeping into the water from both sides of the Mexican/U.S. border. Also, the presence of pesticides and fertilizers from farms along the length of the river due to run-off has been detected and their effects on water supplies are being carefully examined.

If current trends continue, most scientists agree that very serious biological consequences will occur to the Middle Rio Grande riparian ecosystem. There is little question that a riparian ecosystem will be present as long as the Rio Grande continues to flow its course through the state, but many biologists express concern about the "biological quality" and "ecosystem integrity" of this riparian ecosystem.²⁰ As mentioned, the cottonwood forests are continually aging and slowly disappearing. Wetlands and marsh areas have been drained and converted to farmland. As these riparian systems diminish, the associated flora and fauna will be pushed to survive and potentially may die off. Because of this perceived threat, biologists and ecology experts are suggesting ways to prevent the slow death of the remaining native Rio Grande ecosystems.

In their "Middle Rio Grande Ecosystem: Bosque Biological Management Plan," the Middle Rio Grande Biological Interagency Team has proposed a series of recommendations that, if implemented, could potentially ensure the survival of these native Rio Grande ecosystems. Their plan, as outlined, has twenty-one recommendations. They include changes and measures that deal with hydrology and the management of surface and ground water; aquatic resources and proper use of these resources; changes dealing with terrestrial resources, such as protecting the bosque forests that already exist; enhancing monitoring and research in processes and actions that effect the Rio Grande ecosystems; implementation of a sustained plan of management of biological resources; and viewing the middle Rio Grande as part of a much larger riparian system. In all, the team sees the need not only to protect the bosque forest that already exists from development, but to expand the forest in the future. This can be done by a concerted effort to restore and maintain the fundamental processes necessary for ecosystem health and vitality. Suggestions include the renewed overbank flooding of parts of the floodplain to simulate natural perennial cycles that once existed, and to allow the river channel as much freedom to migrate within the floodplain as possible.²¹

In a study conducted by Ellis, Molles and Crawford, experimental flooding over five years in the riparian forests of the Bosque del Apache produced very interesting and promising results. Over the period of the study, it was found that seasonal flooding did in fact promote new cottonwood tree growth and increased the populations of various soil microbes and insects that are needed in a healthy riparian ecosystem. Though the results in other areas were inconclusive, the study suggests that even limited flooding can have a tremendous impact in restoring the bosque forests of the Rio Grande.

The Rio Grande River has played and will continue to play a very vital and integral role in the sustenance and continued growth of the Albuquerque metropolitan area. The river’s use has led the community and state to a certain amount of success and prosperity. Yet with the success, the continued use and disuse of the river has become an area of concern for local communities and environmental groups. It is extremely important that students learn about the Rio Grande and its role in the development of New Mexico and the Albuquerque region, and also understand issues of concern and controversy relating to the river. From this understanding, students learn to make appropriate and reasonable decisions about our community and its resources.

1. Rosner, "Albuquerque’s Natural Environment- River" Section. 1996
2. Snead, et al. 1986
3. Snead, et al. 1986
4. Crawford, et al. 1993
5. Kelley, 1982
6. Crawford, et al. 1993
7. Kelley, 1982
8. Kelley, 1982
9. Kelley, 1982
10. Bureau of Reclamation, Department of the Interior, 1977
11. Bureau of Reclamation, Department of the Interior, 1977
12. Bureau of Reclamation, Department of the Interior, 1977
13. Kelley, 1982
14. Chronic, 1987
15. Kelley, 1982
16. Bureau of Reclamation, Department of the Interior, 1976
17. Dahm, et al. 1997
18. Bureau of Reclamation, Department of the Interior, 1976
19. Bureau of Reclamation, Department of the Interior, 1976
20. Crawford, et al. 1993
21. Crawford, et al. 1993

The material detailed in this curriculum unit will be used in a unit that I currently teach on Surface and Moving Water. This unit is one part of a high school Geology and Astronomy course taught in an urban setting. Though students are inner-city dwellers, many have a connection with the Rio Grande through their own experiences or the experiences and stories of parents and grandparents. The unit has been designed to relate material currently taught, such as stream erosion, meanders and oxbows, sediment deposition, and flooding, to the local community and landforms. As mentioned earlier, the Rio Grande is an important feature of the Albuquerque area, but few students have an understanding of its dynamics and features. Most students have little appreciation for the river and its contributions to their community. Lessons will be developed to help foster this understanding and attempt to lead students to a greater appreciation of the Rio Grande and its influences on their lives.

Lesson One:

Students will simulate river processes such as meandering, oxbow formation, avulsion, etc. with stream tables. A stream table is a small scale model of a fluvial, or water, system. It is an enclosed structure in which running water (usually supplied by a hose connected to the stream table) flows through sediments, such as sand and gravel, that have been placed in the table. As the water flows, students are able to see the effects that this fluid movement has on the sediment material. Tables demonstrate the same processes that can be witnessed in natural flowing water structures, such as rivers and streams. Analysis of the movements will be done by the students, with a follow-up discussion on the Rio Grande river and its characteristics. Utilizing slides and diagrams, students should be able to see some of the same structures and characteristics that they saw with their experiments with the stream table.

Lesson Two:

After a discussion / lecture with notes, students will construct a timeline model of the Rio Grande river and its development over the last several hundred thousand years. Strong emphasis will be placed on the channelization of the river in very recent times and the quick disappearance of the riparian forests along its length. Students will build a three-dimensional model of the river as it appeared before human habitation of the Albuquerque region and after habitation. The models will be displayed in class, with students working on their model in large groups. An analysis of the changes that have occurred to the river will be required by all students in the form of a written report to accompany the models that have been built.

Lesson Three:

Students will critically analyze issues related to the current use of the Rio Grande river. Reaction papers / class discussions / debates concerning the use of the river and the damming and channelization of it will be done. Classes may also focus on issues such as measures to help preserve riparian forests and aquatic ecosystems. Students can also research methods that can be used to rescue endangered species such as the Silvery Minnow. Students will read articles recently published in the Albuquerque Journal concerning these issues and the differing points of view that are established within these articles. (See student reading list)

Lesson Four:

Students will participate in a field trip to the Rio Grande bosque and the Rio Grande Nature Center to examine cottonwood forests and the bosque ecosystem. After all classes have had the opportunity to learn about the bosque in the classroom, this will enable them to incorporate some of what they have learned with hands-on observation and analysis. On-site activities related to these field trips will be designed to engage students in observation and data recording.

Lesson Five:

Students will be required to research and develop a report or project on one of the endangered or threatened species of plants or animals found in the middle Rio Grande region. Projects must include descriptions of habitat, reasons for threat, diagrams and pictures of the plant or animal and its habitat (see attached list of special status plants and animals).

Other Possible Activities:

-Guest speakers that have been long-time residents of the community who have experienced floods in Albuquerque and can give first-hand accounts of these events.

-Guest speakers currently working on riparian ecosystems and reclamation projects can discuss their works and long-term implications of human impact on the Rio Grande.

-Activity showing how a "One-Hundred Year Flood" is determined. Develops and utilizes statistics, research and computation.

-Beginning a riparian reclamation project for the classes to work on as a community service project. Involve various resources from the community in a project designed to help the re-establishment of cottonwood and other native plant species in areas that have been taken over by non-native species. The project would include the removal of these non-native species of plants, such as tamarisk, and the planting of cottonwood seedlings in these areas. Also, the clean-up and removal of human and plant litter, and the thinning of understory growth in the area could be done. I would especially encourage parents and other family members of the students to become involved in the project as a form of community outreach. I view this as an opportunity to utilize knowledge that the students have learned in class in a very hands-on, real world application. The message is that there is a connection between the science of school and the science of everyday life.

Chronic, Halka. Roadside Geology of New Mexico. Mountain Press Publishing Company. 1987.

*A very good resource for basic geology around the state of New Mexico. The book is divided into "Trips" along various highways and points out numerous geological features and characteristics that can be seen. The introduction to the book gives a simple, fairly complete overview of the geologic history of New Mexico.

Crawford, Clifford S., Anne C. Cully, Rob Leutheuser, Mark S. Sifuentes, Larry H. White, James P. Wilbur. Middle Rio Grande Ecosystem: Bosque Biological Management Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993.

*Resource designed for anyone interested in ecosystem concerns of the Middle Rio Grande Valley. Material covered includes the history, existing conditions, future concerns, and specific recommendations for biological management of the Rio Grande river. Good illustrations to demonstrate various aspects of riparian ecosystems, and changes that have occurred in the area over time.

Dahm, C.N., T. Mulhern, P.V. Unnikrishna, H.M. Valett, M.C. Molles, Jr., C.S. Crawford. "Riparian Ecosystem Restoration: Effects of Flooding and Vegetation Type on Annual Evapotranspiration in a Semi-arid Landscape". NASA Proposal 97-NCERQA-15.

*Study on the effects of flooding in relation to the use of water by native plants.

Kelly, Vincent C.. Albuquerque, Its Mountains, Valley, Water and Volcanoes. New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources. 1982.

*Excellent overview of geology and the environment in the Albuquerque area. Written specifically for Albuquerque, it uses local landmarks and features to construct an overview of the region geologically and environmentally. The book has interesting photographs of how the city has changed in the last 100 years. It could be used as a high school geology book for the section of the course on local geology.

Merritts, Dorothy, Andrew De Wet and Kirsten Menking. Environmental Geology.

W. H. Freeman and Company. 1998.

*Basic college textbook that reviews elemental geology and relates the material to environmental science and ecology.

Molles, Manuel C.. Ecology, Concepts and Applications. WCB McGraw-Hill. 1999.

*Higher level college environmental science text.

Rosner, Joan and Hy. "The Albuquerque Environmental Story". Cottonwood Printing

Company. 1996. http://www.cabq.gov/aes/abqenv.html

*Website that has been developed from a resource guide from the 1970’s. Gives an overview of Albuquerque, and environmental challenges that the city faces. Written to be used by teachers with many activities for the classroom. Primarily geared for younger students from elementary through middle school.

Siegel, Lee. "Rivers Reshaped: USU Scientist Suggests We Rethink Our Water Ways". Salt Lake Tribune. December 12, 1998.

*Newspaper article that analyzes how science is now starting to think about how past river management practices may have a long term impact on various environment and ecological systems.

Snead, Rodman and Steve Reynolds. "Surface Hydrology" from New Mexico in Maps.

University of New Mexico Press. 1986.

*Numerous maps of New Mexico, from geological to political. The Surface Hydrology map shows all the major rivers and streams in New Mexico and how these feed into larger ones.

U.S. Department of Interior Bureau of Reclamation. New Mexico Water Resources: Assessment For Planning Purposes. 1976.

*Description of the history of water management practices in New Mexico and future projects designed to effectively utilize the Rio Grande river for agricultural, residential and industrial use. Gives a detailed description of projects that have been done in the past and why they were instituted.

U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation. Environmental Impact Statement: Operation and Maintenance Program for the Rio Grande- Velarde to Caballo Dam. 1977.

*An environmental impact statement analyzing possible changes and effects construction of various water resource projects have had and will have on the Rio Grande and surrounding areas. Good photos and maps of projects.

Windell, John T., PhD. Stream Riparian and Wetland Ecology. University of Colorado. Fall, 1992.

*Good detailed text on streams and stream factors, include both biotic and abiotic. Excellent resource for Biology teachers wishing to add stream ecology to their curricula. Very complete glossary of terms.

The Albuquerque Environmental Story by Joan and Hy Rosner. Selected sections that can be printed off or accessed by computer from the internet. http://www.cabq.gov/aes/abqenv.html

Albuquerque: Its Mountains, Valley, Water and Volcanoes by Vincent C. Kelley. Selected readings.

"Safeguard for Minnow Starts Today" from the Albuquerque Journal, June 23, 1999. Article by Mike Taugher.

"Report: Dying River Needs Changes" from the Albuquerque Journal, June 27, 1999. Article by Mike Taugher.

Teacher Resources

I. Glossary of Terms

Acre-feet: amount of water covering one acre (43,560 sq. ft.) to a depth of one foot.

Aggradation: the process by which material is deposited within a channel as a result of sediment overloading.

Alluvium: sediments transported and deposited by streams and rivers.

Arroyo: a dry gully, rivulet or stream.

Avulsion: a sudden shift of a river channel from one part of the valley floodplain to another through the development of a new course; also known as pattern movement.

Bosque: a small wooded area associated with riparian habitat.

Braided stream: stream characterized by multiple channels that divide and rejoin; indicative of an unstable stream ecosystem.

Channelization: the artificial straightening, stabilizing, or diverting of rivers resulting in straighter and deeper channels.

Fluvial: materials that are transported and deposited by streams; usually rounded, sorted into layers and poorly compacted.

Flood plain: a nearby flat landform composed of sediment that lies on either side of a stream and is commonly underwater during floods.

Meander: a stream reach that includes one complete bend, curve or loop.

One-hundred year flood: a regulatory standard that is based on statistical analysis of historical flooding of a river or stream, useful for planning in an attempt to control floods and provide flood insurance.

Oxbow: area of a stream, cut off by meandering processes; often develops into wetland habitat for riparian plants and animals.

Riparian: areas bordering streams, lakes, rivers, and other water courses; usually having high water tables and are capable of supporting plants that require saturated soils during all or part of the year.

Sediment load: quantity of solid material that can be transported by a stream or river.

Siltation: process by which a river or stream becomes clogged with sediments.

Wetland: general term that includes different landscapes covered by shallow and sometimes intermittent waters; such as bogs, swamps, and marshes.

Yazoo: low areas of the floodplain that are found alongside rivers and are in constant risk of flooding.

II. Special Status Plants and Animals of the Middle Rio Grande-

FE = federally endangered
C2 = category 2 federal candidate
FT = federally threatened
SE = state listed endangered
FP = federally proposed for listing
SS = state listed sensitive
C1 = category 2 federal candidate
BC = Biological Interagency Team species of concern

Brimblecombe, S., Gallannaugh, D., & Thompson, C. et al, 1998. QPB Science Encyclopedia. Helicon Publishing Group Ltd.: New York.
    This book is a really great resource for all those little questions that are eating away at the back of your head. Most of the entries are short enough so that the         science educated person can quickly read it and say, "Oh yes, I remember that now…"

McCormick, C. & Pressley, M., 1997. Education Psychology: Learning, Instruction, Assessment. Addison Wesley Longman Inc.: New York.    
    This was a textbook for an introductory class in education psychology. I have used this book on many occasions to help me get the research behind my          students’ behavior. Definitely a well used book in my household.

McFadden, L., 1999. Lecture Notes.
    Sorry I can’t get you a copy. Les was a wonderful leader for our summer course. I learned so much about soils and why they are important, that is why this          curriculum unit was made.

Merrits, D., De Witt, A., & Menking, K., 1998. Environmental Geology: An Earth System Science Approach. W.H. Freeman and Company: NewYork.
    This book has so many great ideas for teaching Earth science. Merrits takes an orthodox point of view on teaching Earth science. Although this is designed for     freshman college level classes, the information is written at a level and in a way that high school students can understand. It might be a little too advanced for         middle school.

Molles, M., 1999. Ecology: Concepts and Applications. WCB/McGraw-Hill Companies: Boston.
    Great source for examples! Molles explains study after study and relates them to the content. For example, he talks about cicadas that sweat, but first he goes      through the entire atmospheric conditions that would be ideal for sweating organisms. He also talks about the scientific process that goes into the discovery of          sweating bugs. This would be a really neat class to teach or learn more about.

Spaudling, N. & Namowitz, S., 1997. Heath Earth Science. McDougal Littell: Evanston, Illinois.
    This is a basic Earth science high school textbook. This is the text that my students will be using so I thought I should use some of the terms and concepts              addressed in the book. Although soils were left out, I plan on supplementing the text with this curriculum unit.

This unit has been designed to aid teachers in guiding students through an exploration of Transcendentalist thought and environmental consequences of human populations. The unifying topics of study will be the definition of Transcendentalism, Transcendentalist literature, and the relevancy of Transcendentalist thought regarding local environmental issues. Topics covered will include the literary and technical elements of Transcendentalist writings, common Transcendentalist themes, and social reform with an emphasis on utopian societies. Students will have the opportunity to display proficiency in areas of literacy, formal and creative writing, research, public speaking, and artistic dexterity in an original work.

In relation to the scope of an English course, this unit will introduce and/or reinforce the literary elements of main idea, purpose of writing and audience, figurative language, and writing styles, strengthen reading comprehension skills, increase proficiency in research and presentation of information, strengthen the ability to make relevant connections between literature and contemporary issues, and provide a strong base for future literary study.

The strategies and resources used for this unit are appropriate for American literature students at the high school junior level and can be modified to accommodate different learning levels.

The activities in this unit can be used individually or together to adequately cover the teacher's expectations of student learning. The suggested time frame for this unit is a maximum of three weeks of course work, based on daily fifty-minute class periods. However, this unit can easily be modified to meet the needs of any class schedule at the appropriate level. The estimated time for activities is as follows:

Introductory Activities: 1 to 3 days

Developmental Activities: 4 to 7 days

Concluding Activities: 4 to 7 days

Evaluation: Ongoing throughout the unit

Upon completion of this unit the learner will be able to…

Cognitive

1. Identify five characteristics of Transcendentalism.
2. Identify literary techniques, including main idea, style, purpose of writing, and figurative language.
3. Evaluate the similarities and differences between Transcendentalism and Puritanism and Romanticism.
4. Recognize recurrent themes and imagery.
5. Recognize gender stereotypes.
6. Recognize the influence of social events on literature.
7. Demonstrate the ability to read comprehensively independently.
8. Develop proficiency in the use of library facilities for research purposes.
9. Identify the changes to the Albuquerque environment caused by human impact.
10. Predict the outcomes of continued environmental stresses on the Albuquerque region.
11. Compose original poetry as discourse on a local environmental issue.
12. Debate the pros and cons of a local environmental issue.
13. Define "utopia" and related vocabulary.
14. Create their own utopian society based on Transcendentalist ideals.
15. Develop strengthened language usage in writing and speaking.
16. Identify important events and changes in mid-19^th century life.
17. Identify necessities of modern life.
18. Recognize the influence of Transcendentalist thought in other literary works.

Affective

1. Engage in meaningful discussion about local environmental issues and ethics.
2. Compare and contrast modern values with values of other literary time periods.
3. Appreciate the importance of nature as inspiration in art and literature.
4. Develop a sense of empowerment regarding environmental change.
5. Work efficiently in cooperative settings.
6. Develop time management and organizational skills.
7. Accept responsibility for independent learning.
8. Respect the role of science and research in society.

Psychomotor

1. Design a visual representation of a simplified society.
2. Design and construct a visual representation of a modern utopia.
3. Construct a visual timeline of the industrial and technological advancements in American history.

Topic Outline

1. Historical Background 1800-1850s

1. Shift from agricultural society to industrial society

1. Word "technology" coined in 1829
2. Invention of cotton gin, sewing machine, telegraph, assembly line, steam engine, postage stamp

1. Results

1. Farm laborers decreased, factory workers increased
2. Contrasting levels of rich and poor
3. Public aid societies form
4. Political corruption spreads

1. Literary Response

1. Reflects innovation and confidence of the nation
2. No longer derivative- New England Renaissance
3. Transcendentalism

1. Fundamental truths about life and death can be reached only by going beyond the world of the senses
2. Characteristics of Transcendentalism

1. Nature
2. Individualism
3. Democratic
4. Moral enthusiasm
5. Reform society

1. Transcendental Authors

1. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)

1. Expresses the main principles of Transcendental thought
2. Develops concept of the "Over-soul" or "Universal Mind"

1. Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)

1. Record of testing Transcendental ideals of individualism, self-reliance, and material economy for the sake of spiritual wealth
2. Record of flora and fauna of the locality

1. Margaret Fuller (1810-1850)

1. Accepted by Transcendentalists as intellectual equal
2. First mature consideration of feminism by an American, touching on the intellectual, economic, political, and sexual aspects of the subject

1. Utopias

1. Important part of Transcendental thought
2. Defined as an imaginary ideal society or political state
3. Brook Farm, 1841-1847

1. Transcendental ideals as a response to modern environmental issues in the Albuquerque region

1. Parallels between materialism in the 19^th century and materialism today
2. Specific environmental concerns

1. Edith Escarpment

1. Allows for an understanding of creation and maintenance of the Albuquerque aquifer
2. Provides a shocking example of sources of pollution and devastation

1. Abandoned South Yale Landfill

1. Introduces the idea of arid/semi-arid environments as ideal waste disposal sites
2. Reinforces the idea of past and continued human impact on the environment

1. Coronado Pueblo

1. Allows for local study of communal living
2. Leads to ideas on the possibility of adopting utopian lifestyles

"In the tranquil landscape, and especially in the distant line of the horizon, man beholds somewhat as beautiful as his own nature." In these lines from his influential essay Walden, Henry David Thoreau aptly expresses the harmony he felt between himself and nature and, ultimately, the basis of American Transcendental thought in the mid-19^th century. Indeed, Transcendentalists such as Thoreau and his contemporaries, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, and Nathaniel Hawthorne, created a literature that explores the innate connection between the individual and nature and how awareness of this relationship could be heightened, therefore leading to the reformation of a society that the Transcendentalists viewed as materialistic and corrupt.

In comparison, the influences on society today parallel those the Transcendentalists sought to expose and destroy 150 years ago. The United States continues to advance technologically and capitalistically. The materialism that the Transcendentalists saw as the new defining characteristic of America has escalated. Accordingly, modern growth has perpetuated the environmental devastation that accompanied the industrious nature of 19^th century America. Although environmental policies recently have received more attention, the effects of human impact on the land have continued the stress on fundamental resources begun by the Puritans and given witness to by the Transcendentalists in the mid-1800s.

Consequently, the parallels between environmental issues now and then afford an excellent opportunity for making Transcendentalist ideals and concerns relevant to Albuquerque high school students of American literature. The impacts of advanced human activity on the Albuquerque region mirror the catastrophic environmental changes that have shaped the landscape since its primary populations and especially since European settlement. Locally, students can study first hand how populations and technologies can irreparably alter an area and lead to the loss of necessary precious resources. An understanding of the impacts human life has had on the environment will ultimately lead to generations willing to work to preserve resources and create a balance between nature and human society.

To begin this study, a general overview of the history of the first half of the 19^th century provides the background information necessary to emphasize the vast cultural, social, and environmental changes the United States was experiencing. During this time, the United States began to change into an industrial and urban society. The word technology was coined in 1829. Many inventions that increased productivity and convenience came about, including the cotton gin, the sewing machine, the telegraph, the assembly line, the steam engine, and the postage stamp. As a consequence, the socio-economic landscape of America changed. In the first of the 19th century, the proportion of Americans who labored on farms declined as more and more men and women left the land to work in urban business and factories. In addition, rather than continuing as a republic of small landholders, the United States increasingly became a land of contrasting riches and poverty. As the number of American millionaires grew, the level of poverty in America increased as well. By mid-century, the bread lines and soup kitchens of public aid societies had become a permanent part of life in America's big cities. Moreover, an unprecedented amount of corruption began to characterize political life. For example, during Andrew Jackson's administration, the New York Collector of Customs, Samuel Startwout, became the first public servant known in American history to steal a million dollars.

Also, as a result of the growing trend of urbanization and expansion, the United States began to face new political and social challenges. During this time, a national coalition of abolitionists established the American Anti-Slavery Society. Additionally, women began to battle more and more for their property and voting rights, as well as play a major role in social reform. Notable women led movements to improve prisons and asylums, promote women's education, and reform dress standards. On the expansionist front, the United States fought the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). Politically, this war was criticized because it sought to acquire slave-holding territory. These issues, coupled with the turbulence and imbalance caused by the nation's unprecedented growth, prompted significant changes in the values and moods of the American people.

In relation, the literary response to the fast-paced years of 1840-1855 reflected the innovation and confidence that characterized the time period. Romantic literature departed from the didactic tradition of Puritan and Revolutionary literature, and the authors of Romanticism, although still derivative in style, began to displace American literature from English and European literatures. The gradual shift toward uniquely American styles in art and literature coalesced in the creative outburst known as the New England Renaissance. During this literary period, the nation's prosperity and confidence demanded a great literature to celebrate, as well as criticize, the new definition of America. For the first time, American authors experienced complete freedom from previous literary conventions and were able to discuss the people and culture of the United States from a new, uniquely American, standpoint.

Specifically, one of these uniquely American standpoints that blossomed during the New England Renaissance was Transcendentalism. Although Transcendentalism had its roots in the romantic literature of Europe, neo-Platonism, German ideology, and Oriental mysticism, proponents of American Transcendentalist thought took pieces of each of these philosophical tendencies to form a conglomerate art form for American literary purposes. American Transcendentalism is based on the belief that the most fundamental truths about life and death can be reached only by going beyond the world of the senses. That is, there is something in human beings that transcends human nature-- a spark of divinity. This celebration of feeling over reason appealed to the masses who were feeling restricted by the harsh doctrines that held on to the remnants of Puritanism. Rather, Americans found in Transcendentalist literature the freedom to expand as individuals, just as their country was expanding as a nation. Through Transcendentalism, followers claimed that each and every individual, living as a true individual, free from restraining dogma and dull habits of thought, could rise above the material world. This cultural rejuvenation against the materialism of American society resulted from the transcendence of the "Oversoul," an all-pervading power for goodness from which all things come and of which all things are a part. This transcending power is emphasized in the five basic characteristics of transcendental tendency.

First, nature played an important role in the Transcendentalist view. Nature was divine and alive with spirit; indeed, the human mind could read the truths of life in nature. To live in harmony with nature and to allow one's deepest intuitive being to communicate with nature was a source of goodness and inspiration. In fact, writers not only celebrated America's great landscape, but also constructed the wilderness as a type of dramatic character that illustrated moral law. The desire for an escape from the evils of society and a return to nature became a permanent convention of American literature.

Second, Transcendentalist thought emphasized individualism. Only by rejecting the irrelevant dogmas in place and searching for inner truth could one experience the deep intuition of spiritual reality. In relation, Transcendentalism is also very democratic, asserting that the powers of the individual mind and soul are equally available to all people. These powers are not dependent on wealth, gender, background, or education, but on the individual's willingness to release their own imaginative power to realize his or her place in the Oversoul.

Next, the obvious results from Transcendentalist efforts are manifest in the intense moral enthusiasm that characterized Transcendental thinkers. Society, with its emphasis on material success, was often seen as a source of corruption. To combat this evil, many Transcendentalists were associated with such moralist groups as the anti-slavery group, the march for women's rights, and other aid societies. Ultimately, some Transcendentalists hoped to reform society by creating an American utopia with a perfect social and political system. Many followers worked toward this ideal by forming utopian communities, the most famous of which is Brook Farm.

As a result of its lofty aspirations, Transcendentalist literature is often intensely optimistic and suggests that the individual, in harmony with the divine universe, can transform the world. The best examples of this Transcendentalist zeal are found in the works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Margaret Fuller. These authors actively reinforced Transcendentalist ideals, with a special emphasis not only on nature and the individual's ability to divine truth from it, but also on taking that truth and using its power to make a difference in what Emerson, Thoreau, and Fuller saw as a corrupted, ruined, urban maze.

First, Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) is often known as the Father of American Transcendentalism. Despite his training as a Unitarian minister, Emerson felt compelled to leave the ministry "for reasons of conscience" (American Literature 159). He traveled to Europe and was there introduced to the English writers William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Thomas Carlyle. Their ideas and influence prompted him to become a member of the Transcendentalist Club when he returned to the United States. It was in this club that Emerson met Henry David Thoreau and Margaret Fuller (159).

Upon his return, Emerson also began writing. He composed his first book, Nature, in 1836 and gave an inspirational address called The American Scholar in 1837 (159). More works followed, including his Essays in 1841, Essays: Second Series in 1844, Representative Men in 1849, and The Conduct of Life in 1860. Within these works readers found inspiration along the lines of Transcendentalist thought. Emerson's works were influential not only for future authors like Walt Whitman, Emily Dickinson, and Robert Frost, but also for the general public of his time. His beliefs and great optimism concerning the power of the individual mirrored the spirit of the growing nation. However, Emerson's works often served as a social criticism of the excesses of materialism and the impacts of urbanization he witnessed with the development of the nation.

Second, Henry David Thoreau lived "a deliberately unconventional life" (172). Despite his excellent education at Harvard, Thoreau refused to join a career field, and supported himself through odd jobs, thus affording him the freedom he desired. As a member of the Transcendentalist Club, Thoreau was quite close to Emerson; indeed, Thoreau lived and studied with Emerson for two years.

Thoreau's ideals relied heavily on the responsibility of the individual. That is, his plan to reform society emphasized change in the lives of individual men and women. His most influential works, Civil Disobedience (1848), A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (1849), and Walden (1854) focused on the rights and duties of the individual as they related to life in and out of the city. Indeed, Thoreau's writings were not so much about where one lives as they were "about living itself" (173).

Third, Margaret Fuller (1810-1850) was known as an American editor, essayist, poet, and social reformer (165). As one of the few female members of the Transcendentalist Club, Fuller openly rejected the role society had assigned to women in her time. She was not only active in the club, but also served as editor-in-chief of the club's magazine, The Dial, and wrote extensively based on the ideals of Transcendentalism, especially equality.

Sadly, though, Fuller's contributions to Transcendentalist thought and literature were not fully appreciated during her time. She was often viewed as "a would-be intellectual old maid, sex-starved for many years, then sex-crazed" (The Norton Anthology of American Literature 678), a definition based more on her personal life but that dominated her professional life. However, her influence on the growing Feminist movement of the time cannot be dismissed. She spoke out for a society that would recognize the fundamental beauty of all creatures and insisted that the individual could not discover fundamental truths nor experience transcendence until a respect for one another and the surrounding environment was achieved. Fuller was one of the first to speak out to an entire nation about the inequality that existed between the sexes, and her courage and extraordinary talent count her among the most influential in American thought.

In relation to the social criticisms of Emerson, Thoreau, and Fuller, the accelerated urbanization and the too often devastating consequences that historically have accompanied an increased emphasis on materialism threaten the fragile Albuquerque environment today. More than one third of New Mexico's population lives in metropolitan Albuquerque (Albuquerque Environmental Story," Air Quality" 1 of 5). Ironically, the area consistently chosen by settlers was and remains one of the most ecologically challenged regions in the Southwest. The high altitude and valley location of Albuquerque create a particularly environmentally sensitive area. Despite the environmental burdens, though, Albuquerque continues to experience rapid growth. Since the mid-1970s, the Albuquerque urban area has grown by more than 25 percent-- from about 427,000 to 537,500 (AES, "Air Quality" 1 of 5). Projection for the year 2015 put Albuquerque's population at 638,000, an average increase of 5,000 per year.

Accordingly, with this shift to and domination of prolific expansion in the Albuquerque region, the stresses on the local environment continue to multiply. This expansion is based on human exploitation of natural resources and is a direct result of society's response to materialism. Therefore, the ways that the current growth trends and the current policies concerning resource management effect the Albuquerque area merit a response similar to the 19^th century American response to materialism in the form of Transcendentalism. To encourage this response, a study of the geologic framework of the Albuquerque environmental situation and an examination of some of the pertinent issues that result from human impact within this framework will offer students a greater understanding of the effects of urbanization on the region.

First, one of the most pressing issues for the Albuquerque area is the looming threat to the once abundant aquifer. Due primarily to overuse of water by capitalist ventures that have settled in the Albuquerque area, the underground aquifer that supplies the city's water is being depleted faster than it can be recharged. In relation, the existing water in the shallow aquifer is in peril due to the pollutants brought in by expansion and human impact. Geologically, the aquifer was created by the formation of the Rio Grande Rift. The Rift was formed by the down-dropping of a large block of the earth's crust, yielding an elongated trough bound on either side by mountains (AES, "Geology and Geological History" 1 of 3). As a result of this subsidence, most of Albuquerque is situated on top of material that has been eroded from the mountains surrounding the Rift zone and deposited within it. The unconsolidated material, or alluvium, is porous and therefore able to store the vast amount of water that makes up the aquifer.

However, despite the seeming perfection of the geologic formation of a natural underground storage tank, the porous quality of the alluvium yields a problem with accelerated urbanization. For example, the development that is occurring on top of the Edith Escarpment in Albuquerque demonstrates with shocking clarity the issue of pollution in relation to the aquifer. By examining the escarpment, it is possible to see an excellent example of the unconsolidated materials that make up the aquifer. It is easy to see the porous nature of the alluvium and to understand its place in the recharging of the aquifer. However, a quick hike to the top of the escarpment displays a scene of human impact at its greatest. There are piles of trash and old tires, as well as on-going development complete with oil- and gas-using tractors and other heavy machinery. The pollution that these instruments of urbanization create remains in the earth and, with the rain, trickles through the unconsolidated material of the aquifer, thus contaminating the water supply.

Indeed, the aquifer that supplies the Albuquerque area's water is threatened more and more with acceleration of urbanization. However, the pollution has been occurring since very early in the development of the region. Abandoned landfill sites can be found all over the city. One of particular importance, though, is the abandoned South Yale Sanitary Landfill. Used during the years of 1946-1965, this landfill was recently uncovered with the construction of a new road from Interstate 25 to the Albuquerque Sunport. As this road was built, workers had to excavate and dispose of trash found in an area approximately 45 feet deep and 300,00 yards long. Like the waste collecting on top of the Edith Escarpment, beneath all this construction and trash is the aquifer.

Ironically, though, it is argued that semi-arid and arid environments like the Albuquerque region are ideal waste repository sites. According to the book Deserts as Dumps? The Disposal of Hazardous Materials in Arid Ecosystems, "The aridity of deserts means that less water is available, at least at the surface, to mobilize and transport hazardous substances. Further, fewer organisms are available to intrude upon a waste disposal site. Finally deserts tend to be scarcely populated and less intensely used for agriculture and other activities that might conflict with waste disposal" (Reith et. al. 5). Therefore, the urbanization that is occurring in other parts of the nation has a direct effect on regions like Albuquerque as their waste is transported to the more suitable dump site of the nation's deserts. Although science and technology continue to make great strides in understanding and regulating the waste that results from increased materialism, the issue of waste management will remain an ever-prevalent problem as capitalism and urbanism leave their mark on the land.

However, even in the absence of urbanization and the negative impacts of materialism, waste issues exist. Long before the population boom that has so greatly affected the Albuquerque environment, Native Americans impacted the land of the Southwest. Although the different tribes that inhabited New Mexico had considerably less effect on the region's environment than the industry of today, they were unable to leave the land in the pristine condition in which they found it. For example, the Pueblo Indians who inhabited the area at the Coronado Pueblo in Bernalillo, New Mexico, certainly left behind a record of the destructive effects to the land that resulted from their agrarian lifestyle. Indeed, the Pueblo faced issues concerning food, fuel, and waste. As a Pueblo, only so much land was available for their use in farming and gathering wood for fires. Also, the Pueblo required a location for the trash and waste they accumulated. These needs coupled with the limited resources within the Pueblo boundary eventually led to the overuse of the land. However, when the depletion of natural resources adversely affected the Pueblo way of life, the people could simply abandon the site and search out a new area that would suit their needs. Today, that option no longer exists. Expansion and industry have not only made it impossible to leave an impacted area so it may recover, but instead have made it possible to harvest and exploit resources from all over the world.

Although these sites provide an excellent, visual example of the impact urbanization has had on the Albuquerque environment, they relate to just a few of the issues and challenges the region faces as it continues to experience growth. Human habitation has always had an effect on the land, and increased human habitation places resources and environments in danger of complete depletion. Therefore, many of the issues and challenges the Transcendentalists faced parallel the issues and challenges facing the Albuquerque area as it experiences the same sort of accelerated urbanization and technological advances that characterized the mid-19^th century. Not only does development in the area persist and cause potentially irreversible damage to the Albuquerque environment, but the region also is in need of fresh ideas and new policies to replace the stale wisdom that promotes the societal emphasis on materialism. A study of Transcendentalism provides students with the opportunity to see their own connection with nature, understand the interconnectedness and cyclical patterns that define natural environments, recognize the materialism and excesses of modern society, predict future environmental and societal occurrences, and decide what response this information merits in their own lives.

Introductory Activities

Suggested activities for introducing the Transcendental world and its relationship to human impact on the environment include:

1. One week prior to beginning the unit, assign students to find one newspaper, magazine, or Internet article each on a local environmental issue. This assignment will be due on the first day of this unit. Have students share their findings with the class and draw on students' prior knowledge to discuss environmental challenges the Albuquerque region faces. These issues will become the topics of the unit's developmental and culminating activities. Relate the idea of human impact today to its beginnings. What was our area like 10 years ago? One hundred years ago? One thousand years ago? One million years ago? On day two of the unit, introduce students to historical background of the 19^th century and Transcendentalism.
2. Divide the class into two halves. Assign the phrase "New England Renaissance" to one half; assign the word "Transcendentalism" to the other half. Without using external sources such as dictionaries or textbooks, ask the students to take 5 to 10 minutes to devise their own definition of these words based on prior knowledge. Have a spokesperson from each half report the definition. Discuss: What did these words mean during the 19^th century? Do they mean the same things today? How are the two terms related to one another? Discuss the components of the New England Renaissance, historical influences, and Transcendentalism.
3. Show a video that deals with either the New England Renaissance, Transcendentalism, or the growth of industrialism in the United States and/or New Mexico. Discuss the ideas in the video as they relate to the New England Renaissance and Transcendentalism.
4. Decorate the classroom with maps and pictures that represent the passage of geological time and the changes in the landscapes caused by recent accelerated urbanization. A bulletin board may be provided for students to provide their own visualizations of the passage of time. These visualizations may be manifested in student drawings, poetry, or other resources the students may wish to use, including periodicals, books, posters, pictures, and Internet information.

Developmental Activities

The following is a list of suggested activities to aid students in their understanding of Transcendentalism and its role as a response to environmental concerns. The activities may be used individually or together according to the students' needs and interests. The listed activities are designed to allow student choice and freedom in what and how the unit's components will be studied, yet also provide a firm structure to assist in material presentation and manageability. Teachers are encouraged to explore and define students' needs and interests and combine, modify, and employ the developmental activities accordingly.

1. Plan a debate in which students prepare to argue both sides of one local environmental issue. Expect students to research both sides of their topic and be able to present either side on the assigned day.
2. Ask: What events/ advances are occurring locally today that will generate the same sort of change as those of the early to middle 19^th century? Based on students' responses, divide students into groups of 3 to 4 and have each group investigate the proposed events/ advances. Each group will present the information discovered.
3. Read Ralph Waldo Emerson's poetry. Specifically suggested are "The Rhodora," "Earth Song," and "Two Rivers." Discuss the themes and literary techniques found in these poems. Emphasize the Transcendental aspects of each poem.
4. Read excerpts from Ralph Waldo Emerson's essays Nature and/or "Self-Reliance." Discuss the themes and literary techniques found in these essays. Emphasize that these works include the basis for Transcendental thought.
5. Allow each student to select a local environmental issue in which he or she is interested. Based on research of the topic, have each student respond to the issue in prose (a reflective or persuasive essay is suggested), and/or in poetry (the poetic format of the limerick, cinquain, diamente, haiku, and concrete provide useful structures for this assignment).
6. Read excerpts from Henry David Thoreau's Walden. Discuss the themes and literary techniques found in these excerpts. Emphasize the Transcendental aspects of the work.
7. Based on Thoreau's demand, "Simplify, simplify!", discuss with students the ideas of simplicity and excessiveness in modern life. How much is too much? Working with partners, have students think of five modern conveniences they could do without and the absence of which would have a positive effect environmentally. Students should complete a visual representation of what the world would look like/ be like without the five conveniences.
8. Read an excerpt from Margaret Fuller's The Great Lawsuit. Discuss gender roles and stereotypes and how Fuller's ideas on these topics relate to Transcendentalism.
9. Two at a time, introduce students to famous Americans, one male and one female, with similar accomplishments (for example, Amelia Earhart and Charles Lindbergh). Have students identify which person is "smarter" or whose accomplishments they think are "better" and why. Discuss whether or not students' responses are stereotypical. How can we change these views? Do we need to change these views? Relate students' responses to Margaret Fuller and Transcendental thought.
10. Discuss the idea and origin of utopias and how the Transcendentalists used this idea in their quest for social reform. Provide examples of utopias, including Brook Farm.
11. Show a video on life in proposed utopias. Discuss the aspects common to utopian ideals and how those aspects compliement Transcendental thinking.

Culminating Activities

Culminating activities for this resource unit may be based on the developmental activities, or may be related to, but independent of, assignments. This will allow the teacher to achieve closure of the unit while still making it meaningful to the students' experiences and achievements.

1. In groups of 3-5, have students devise their own "philosophy" of thought and life that would be accessible, although perhaps not popular with, society as a whole and that relates specifically to the needs of the Albuquerque region. Students should include their philosophical orientation on political structure, gender roles, education, labor, importance or unimportance of science and the arts, environmental policy, and may or may not include religion. As a group, students create a document, a "manifesto," that states their ideals and beliefs. Students should also be able to argue how their philosophy would benefit the Albuquerque region.
2. In groups of 3-5, have students create a Utopian model for improved life in the Albuquerque area. Student utopias should include solutions for division of labor, hierarchy of power (if any), access to education, solutions to poverty/wealth disparities and other social, political, and environmental aspects that the students see as important. Students should create a physical representation of their utopia and be prepared to present their ideas to the class and discuss how life would be improved (or at least defined as "utopian") based on their model.
3. Assign students the task of finding an example of how literature after 1855 has been influenced by Transcendental ideals. Examples may include poems, stories, novels, essays, media clips, magazine articles, or an element of the modern world that is based on or that originated from Transcendentalism. Allow students to share their findings with the class. Make sure a clear connection is made between the students' examples and the material.
4. Take students on a field trip to a site that will give them a first-hand look at the impact of human habitation in the Albuquerque region. Have students respond to this site using Transcendental ideology, either in prose or poetry. Ideas for field trip sites are listed in the Materials and Resources section.

Evaluation

The appropriate evaluation strategies will vary according to the developmental and culminating activities. Evaluation should occur continuously throughout the unit in terms of student understanding, and may occur at the conclusion of the unit in the form of a comprehensive exam. The evaluation strategies for this curriculum unit encourage student involvement, but can be modified according to the students' learning styles and the instructor's teaching techniques.

1. Since the characteristics of Transcendentalism are important to this unit, students should be given the opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge on this subject:

1. Assign an essay of definition in which students define Transcendentalism and its characteristics, possibly providing examples from Transcendental works.
2. Select a short passage from a Transcendental work with which the students are not familiar. Have the students read the passage and find and explain the Transcendental characteristics within it.
3. Assign an essay in which students select a piece of Transcendental literature that has been studied and explore how its Transcendental characteristics lend support to the work's thematic content.
4. Assign an essay in which students may compare and contrast Transcendentalism and another literary time period (for example, Colonialism or Romanticism).

1. As each Transcendental reading is assigned, have students select, copy, and explain their favorite line(s) from the work. Have students share with one another or with the class.
2. Working in groups or individually, have students construct a timeline of American industrial growth from 1800 to present. This time period may be broken up for different groups/students to research and present. Provide butcher paper and markers for the groups/students to prepare a visual representation of the timeline.
3. Students' presentations may be used as a means of unit evaluation. Be sure to set forth specific criteria for the projects.

Example: Working in groups of 3 to 5, create an Utopian model for improved life in the Albuquerque area. Include solutions for division of labor, hierarchy of power (if any), access to education, poverty/wealth disparities, and at least one other social issue, political issue, and environmental issue that you feel is important. Create a physical representation of your utopia and be prepared to discuss its benefits with the class.

Allow students to evaluate their classmates as well as themselves. This may include a rating system that students may use to judge how successful their utopian solutions are, as well as those of their classmates.

4. Assign students to respond to environmental issues through poetry and/or prose. Ask students to include specific characteristics and techniques in their original work.
5. This unit may be covered comprehensively in one exam. This exam should include: Identification of the characteristics of Transcendentalism, definitions of unit vocabulary, identification and discussion of Transcendental authors and works, and an essay question dealing with the relationship of Transcendental writing as a response to environmental issues in the mid-19^th century and its usefulness as a response to environmental issues in the Albuquerque area today.

Films

Bigger, Better, Faster: A Science Odyssey- The Journey of a Century. PBS Home Video, 1998. Approximately 120 minutes.

The Century: America's Time with Peter Jennings, Volume I-VI. ABC Video, 1998. Approximately 11 hours, 40 minutes.

The Native Americans: The Natives of the Southwest, Volume VI.. Turner Home Entertainment, 1994.

A Tour Of Santa Fe and the State of New Mexico. City Productions Home Video, Approximately 50 minutes.

Field Trip Sites

Coronado State Monument, Bernalillo, NM
Edith Escarpment, Edith and Paseo Del Norte
Elena Gallegos Open Space, Tramway Blvd.
Rio Grande Nature Center, Candelaria and Rio Grande
South Yale Landfill, University and Sunport
Other Materials
geologic maps
pictures of early Albuquerque
butcher paper
markers
art supplies for presentations/visuals
cardboard
poster board
rulers
glue
scissors

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. "Earth Song." Concise Anthology of American Literature. Ed. George McMichael. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company,
    1993. 614-615.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Nature. American Literature. Scribner Literature Series. Mission Hills, California: Glencoe Publishing Company, 1989. 161-162.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. "The Rhodora." Concise Anthology of American Literature. Ed. George McMichael. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1993.      606.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. "Self-Reliance." American Literature. Scribner Literature Series. Mission Hills, California: Glencoe Publishing Company, 1989. 163-164.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. "Two Rivers." Concise Anthology of American Literature. Ed. George McMichael. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1993.      617-618.

Fuller, Margaret. The Great Lawsuit. The Norton Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Nina Baym. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1989.                 679-683.

Thoreau, Henry David. Walden. American Literature. Scribner Literature Series.

Mission Hills, California: Glencoe Publishing Company, 1989. 173-180.

Books

American Literature. Scribner Literature Series. Mission Hills, California: Glencoe Publishing Company, 1989.
    A comprehensive anthology of American literature especially designed for use in the high school Language Arts classroom.

Baym, Nina, Ed. The Norton Anthology of American Literature. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1989.
    A comprehensive anthology of American writers. Includes general overviews of literary time periods, author biographies, and the influences and contributions that  have shaped American literature.

Branch, Michael P., Rochelle Johnson, Daniel Patterson, and Scott Slovic, Eds. Reading the Earth: New Directions in the Study of Literature and Environment. Moscow, Idaho: University of Idaho Press, 1998.
   A collection of critical essays that focus on the environment in literature, nature in literature, and ecology in literature. Of interest to this unit are the essays on          theoretical perspectives on culture and environment, a study on "Misogyny in the American Eden: Abbey, Cather, and Maclean," and readings of 19^th century environmental literature including Nathaniel Hawthorne and Ralph Waldo Emerson.

Flew, Antony. A Dictionary of Philosophy. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1984.
    A comprehensive dictionary of classical to modern philosophies, including Transcendentalism and Utopianism.

Gangewere, Robert J., Ed. The Exploited Eden: Literature on the American Environment. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1972.
    A collection of readings from American authors that focus on the importance of ecology and conservation. Includes such authors as Washington Irving, e.e.          cummings, Benjamin Franklin, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Robert Frost, John Steinbeck, and William Faulkner. Provides a brief introduction to each selection. This collection is especially useful as it provides examples of how environmental thought influenced American writers.

Gonick, Larry, and Alice Outwater. The Cartoon Guide to the Environment. New York: HarperPerennial, 1996.
    Covers the main topics of environmental science including chemical cycles, life communities, food webs, agriculture, human population growth, sources of energy and raw materials, waste disposal and recycling, cities, pollution, deforestation, ozone depletion, and global warming.

Hart, James D., Ed. The Oxford Companion to American Literature. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.
    An encyclopedia of American authors, works, characters, literary time periods, and literary terminology.

Kaplan, Nathaniel, and Thomas Kafsaros. The Origins of American Transcendentalism in Philosophy and Mysticism. New Haven: College and University          Press, 1975.
    An excellent overview of the different philosophies that combined to form American Transcendentalism. Also discusses Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau as "social critics."

Matthiessen, F.O. American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and Whitman. London: Oxford University Press, 1968.
    Discusses the five literary giants of the mid-19^th century: Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, and Walt Whitman. Focuses on the authors’ conceptions of the nature and function of literature and their relation to the literature that came before them and after them.

McMichael, George, Ed. Concise Anthology of American Literature. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1993.
    A collection of American literature as well as complete discussions of American literary time periods and American authors' lives.

Merritts, Dorothy, Andrew De Wet, and Kirsten Menking. Environmental Geology: An Earth System Science Approach. New York: W.H. Freeman and               Company, 1998.
    A comprehensive textbook that covers geologic concepts, earth systems, and environmental change.

Molles, Jr., Manuel C. Ecology: Concepts and Applications. Boston: WCB/McGraw-Hill, 1999.
    A comprehensive textbook that covers the basic concepts of ecology.

Nash, Roderick Frazier. American Environmentalism: Readings in Conservation History. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1990.
    A collection of writings by American conservationists, including Black Elk, George Catlin, Henry David Thoreau, Theodore Roosevelt, Wallace Stegner, Ralph Nader, and Edward Abbey. Includes a useful American environmental chronology.

Reith, Charles C., and Bruce M. Thomson, Eds. Deserts As Dumps? The Disposal Of Hazardous Material in Arid Ecosystems. Albuquerque: University of          New Mexico Press.
    A study of the issues and dilemmas that surround the theory that deserts provide the best haven for the disposal of waste.

Roseland, Mark, Ed. Eco-City Dimensions. Gabriola Island, British Columbia: New Society Publishers, 1997.
    Essays on key features of ecological cities including economics, community design, collaborative housing, traffic restraint programs, governance and resource management, and overcoming barriers to change.

Web Sites

www.cabq.gov/aes
An excellent resource for specifics of Albuquerque's geologic framework as well as environmental issues that affect Albuquerque.

www.cnie.org
The online National Library for the Environment. Includes reports on environmental issues as well as the latest in environmental news, environmental laws and treaties, and career help and job opportunities.

* Introduction
* Narrative
* Objectives/Activities
* Activity Examples
* Daily Water Use Record
* Bibliography
__________________________________________________

"Elegant clouds the shape and color of
salmon float against the green
sky of dawn. Rose on green,
heads into the wind stream.
Coyotes are crying down the moon."
(Abbey, 1971)

This pristine image of the west is painted in words by Edward Abbey in his novel, Beyond the Wall, Such images are presented by numerous authors of the American Southwest landscape and become a magnet for individuals, business, agriculture and others in their transmigration to the arid and semi-arid lands of the west. Edward Abbey continues the aforementioned passage with a sense of wonder,

"Still lying in my sack, I hear the thud
of hoofs near the water trough
by the well, two hundred yards
off. Antelope? Deer? Javelina?
I rise and peer into the gloom
but see nothing through the
brush. The sound dies away."
(Abbey, 1971)

Increased population of the desert southwest has placed many demands on natural resources. The issue of water availability has been primarily at the top of that list. The 'water trough,' of which Abbey speaks, becomes the microcosm of the human condition in the arid to semi-arid southwest. Numerous entities armed with corporate or personal agendas are regularly increasing the demand for water acquisition. Industry, agriculture and household demands put increasing pressure on the Rio Grande Aquifer, causing the draw of water to be greater than the aquifer’s ability to recharge.

Clive Agnew and Evan Anderson in, "Water Resources in the Arid Realm," state,

Personal household ownership and responsibility relative to water use is essential while also being aware that certain types of industrial and agriculture methods are less than conducive to arid regions.

Joel E. Cohen in his book, How Many People Can the Earth Support, asks essential questions,

"The best short answers to these questions, "Cohen goes on to say," show that much remains to be learned about natural constraints, and that natural constraints cannot be viewed other than through the lens of human purposes." (4)

In answering the question of how much water is available Cohen reports the following;

It is evident and important that New Mexicans learn from their history and its early inhabitants as they related to water and other environmental matters.

In William Albert Allard’s book, "Vanishing Breed," Thomas McGuane writes in the Forward,

Students in the "Household Water Resource Management Curriculum," will gain an understanding of the problems that confront the place where they live. They will be presented data on water use behaviors and how they can take ownership on a personal level to conserve water. The curriculum unit directs itself to the reluctant learner but can be adapted to other groups of students. The purpose of the curriculum is to create knowledge recognition of water issues in the Albuquerque region while allowing students a better understanding of their water behaviors in their households.

The demands on the source of water in the Albuquerque region happen not only in the residential sector but also reflect commercial, industrial, and institutional demands. A 20-year projection of Albuquerque's historical annual ground water pumping trend and its annual metropolitan area ground water storage depletion resulting from water management options has been readily observed. Albuquerque's water use per capita exceeds that of Denver, Phoenix, El Paso, and Tucson. (7)

Pending and existing city ordinances could ultimately affect personal and household behaviors that relate to water resources. Informed citizens will more readily adjust or adequately debate their necessity or importance. Personal household water data is important to understand, as is the need for life style changes that promote improved water conservation. An improved understanding of global issues related to 'water,' could also more easily evolve as a result of personal and household conservation measures.

The water resource management curriculum will be (15) days in duration with an additional (5) days available for additional time if needed. Activities in this curriculum, however, create the opportunity to expand this unit into additional days. 'Water user guides,' will be distributed to each student for the purpose of completing calculations for water use charting and graphing.

* denotes class activity examples

A) Students will be given 'water user guide data sheets,' on the first day of class with the expectation that they will successfully be able to demonstrate how water is used and the amount that is used in specific household activities.

B) Students will maintain a 'water unit notebook,' to be used specifically for the water management unit.

C) Students will chart or graph daily water use in their home location using a class distributed water facts chart.

D) Students will create and maintain a ‘water article,’ scrapbook that includes local articles from newspapers and magazines.

E) *Students will role play the arguments of 'water user,' types for the purpose of increasing an understanding of the competition for water.

F) Students will research water articles related to the Albuquerque region and write their reactions to the readings.

G) Students will orally present their research finding to the class.

H) *Students will formally discuss assigned water problems in a group format using a formal problem solving discussion process.

I) Students will create a 'community service activity,' that relates to water conservation (speaking to youth groups, distributing water conservation pamphlets, creating posters, visiting a meeting of the water conservancy district, etc.)

J) Students will write letters seeking information from agencies or individuals involved with water management or regulation.

K) Students will be expected to have a basic understanding of water rights as they relate to the Albuquerque region.

L) Students will be expected to know water conserving strategies and how to implement those strategies in their households.

M) Students will write essays, (five paragraph style), to solve assigned water problems presented by the instructor.

N) Students will design their own city that attempts to maximize water conservation.

O) Students will write a short story set during the time of the early Pueblo cultures. Each student’s goal in writing the story is to demonstrate how they would use the environment while minimizing depredation because of present day knowledge.

P) *Students will complete a water conservation project.

1) Watering the lawn for one-half hour uses approximately 240 gallons of water.

2) Flushing the toilet uses approximately five gallons of water.

3) A five-minute shower uses 25-35 gallons of water.

4) About 30 gallons of water are needed to do a standard load of laundry.

5) Using a dishwasher requires about 15 gallons of water.

6) Washing dishes by hand uses an average of 10 gallons of running water.

7) Taking a bath in a tub of hot water uses about 4.0 gallons of water.

8) The average water use per person per day in Albuquerque is 250 gallons as compared

to approximately 185 gallons of water per person per day nationally.

9) In the United States approximately two-thirds of the fresh water used is for agriculture. (5)

10) Approximately 1% of the water consumed is for drinking. (8)

Students in class will take the part of a water user in their community. Business, agriculture, and personal household users among others can be represented. Students will research the needs of that water user and debate their position when confronted by a community water shortage. Each water user will get the same prescribed time to present their case and defend their reasons why their water use is important to the community.

Ground rules should be agreed upon before the role playing activity begins. A debate format can be effective and allows each group their time to present and defend.

Example: Five minute presentation time

Two minutes to defend

Three minutes for closing arguments

(This format is arbitrary and can be adapted to the particular class)

The remaining class members, not involved in the debate, can vote by secret ballot on who they believe best presented their case. A class discussion can follow, processing the activity and securing ideas and opinions by all class members. (essays, speeches, etc. could result from this role playing activity.)

(a five member group will use the following steps in the discussion process)

1) Define the problem
2) Limit the problem
3) Define the terms in the problem
4) Discuss the problem
5) Suggest possible solutions
6) Test possible solutions
7) Select best possible solution or solutions

It is important that members of the 'discussion process group,' stay on each step until it is finished. The process order is necessary to keep the task of problem solving from losing direction. A group leader should be assigned the task of keeping the group on the correct step while also participating as a contributing group member. A natural leader may also emerge if the assigned leader is not meeting the needs of the group process.

Step two of the process means to limit the problem to a more narrow issue. ex. (Potential water shortages in the Albuquerque region vs. water shortages nationally) Always set the problem to be discussed into a resolve. ex.(Resolve that the city government of Albuquerque should create more water restrictions for household water users)
Defining the terms in the problem, step three, means to look at each word in the resolve to determine equal understanding of what they mean.

Step six of the process means to discuss the suggested solutions to determine their worth. The definitions of steps two, three, and six were explained because they tend to represent the greatest challenges to a group. The discussion process can be used to analyze and hypothetically solve current water issues within the region as determined by the class group.

(twenty-five gallons of water per day = water use in many Third World Countries)

Students will be limited to 25 gallons of water per day in their household. Each member of their family will be restricted to the same standard each having their own 25 gallons. (1% of their allotment is for drinking)

Students will record and graph their water use from the water guide chart given to them on the first day of class.

How would these restrictions change the way you and your family live and communicate and what problems would you expect to encounter? Consider strategies that you and your family could use to survive this type of water shortage?

TOTAL ALL WATER USED ___________

A ONE PAGE PAPER THAT DEMONSTRATES A STRATEGY THAT COULD REDUCE THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF WATER USED.

1 Agnew, Anderson 135.

2 Chilton, et al., 57.

3 Chilton, et al, 57.

4 Cohen, 297.

5 Cohen, 303.

6 Allard, (Forward)

7 Bovee, 157.

8 Albuquerque Journal, B1 and B3

Abbey, Edward. Beyond the Wall. New York: Rinehart, and Winston, 1971.
(Wise and lyrical book about landscapes of the desert and the mind.)

Agnew, Clive, and Evan Anderson. Water Resources in the Arid Realm. New York: Routledge, Inc. 1992.
(Study of population growth, industrialization, and environmental mismanagement.)

Allard, William Albert, Vanishing Breed. Boston: Little Brown and Company. 1982.
(Photographs of the Cowboy and the West.)

Bovee, Cindy., Dora Marroquin, and Estelle Zannes. Environmental Citizenship. Albuquerque: New Mexico Bar Foundation . 1995.
(Law- related education and classroom lessons about environmental issues.)

Chilton, Lance., et al. New Mexico (a new guide to the colorful state). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. 1984.

Cohen, Joel E., How Many People Can The Earth Support. New York, London: W.W. Norton and Company. 1995.
(a scholarly review and analysis of population issues)

Kneese, Allen V., and F. Lee Brown. The Southwest Under Stress. New York: Resources for the Future, Inc. 1981.
(A study of energy versus the environment)

Merritts, Dorothy and Andrew De Wet, and Kirsten Menking. Environmental Geology. New York: Freeman. 1998.
(Interdisciplinary approach to environmental geosciences)

Molles, Manuel C., Ecology., Boston: McGraw Hill. 1999.
(The goal of this book is to build a foundation of ecological knowledge around key concepts)

Rosner, Joan and Hy Rosner., et al., Albuquerque's Environmental Story. Albuquerque: Albuquerque Public Schools. 1985.

"Stem Flow to Reduce Water Use Bill." Albuquerque Journal 18 Feb. 1995: B1 and B3 (Article presents water use statistics in the household.)

Wargo, John. Our Children's Toxic Legacy. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1998.
(In this book the author persuasively argues that a full-scale overhaul of the regulation and management of pesticides and other toxic chemicals is needed.)

A recent review of the Albuquerque Public Schools science curriculum indicates that several Earth science competencies are not being met. Therefore, the objective of this curriculum unit is to enhance my current Chemistry in the Community (ChemCom) curriculum. A brief overview of geologic Earth processes and local geology in relation to Albuquerque’s water supply will be included, while maintaining basic chemistry principles and concepts.

Unless we experience drought or flooding, we rarely give water a second thought. For many of us, water is as reliable as the rising sun. We turn on our faucet and water flows. We rarely ask the basic questions. What is water? Who uses water? Where does water come from? Why is water considered a precious resource?

The same is true about our local geology. We look to the east, certain the Sandia Mountains will be there when we awake. To our west, we see the volcanoes, confident they are inactive. Between the two our precious Rio Grande. Below us a large but limited water supply. What happened so many years ago to give us these beautiful landscapes?

The ChemCom curriculum attempts to enhance science literacy through a high school chemistry course that emphasizes chemistry’s impact on society. All ChemCom units focus on a chemistry-related issue currently facing our society and our world. The first ChemCom unit is on water. The unit introduces basic chemistry concepts, while discussing the water issues facing a fictional town. I would like to enhance my current curriculum by providing an overview of Earth formation and chemical composition, along with providing data specific to Albuquerque with an emphasis on conservation. I estimate the unit to be complete in 3 to 4 weeks.

Topics:

• Earth Formation and Age
• Earth Composition
• Albuquerque’s Geology: A Brief Look
• Albuquerque’s Water Supply
• Physical Properties of Water

Upon completion of this unit, students should have a general awareness or basic understanding of:

1. Local geology
2. Local Water Supply
3. Local and personal water use
4. Conservation measures
5. Physical properties of water

Scientists believe that all energy and matter was created with the birth of the universe, in what is known as "The Big Bang Theory." According to the "Big Bang Theory" an unimaginably large cosmic explosion occurred 10 to 20 billion years ago. The cosmic explosion resulted in hot pure energy. As this hot pure energy cooled, the first subatomic particles of matter were formed, subsequently enabling the creation of the first elements. ¹

Universe

The new universe, age of 3 minutes, contained 75% hydrogen and 25% helium. As the universe continued to expand over the next hundreds of millions of years, the hydrogen and helium cooled and condensed into galaxies of stars, including our sun. The planets are a by-product of the formation of these stars. The heavier elements in the universe were later created by nuclear fusion within the stars.²

Solar System

Our solar system developed from a nebula. A nebula consists of clouds of dust and gas remains from initial star formation.³ During this formation the Earth formed from matter that coalesced into a single planet. The age of the Earth is 4.6 billion years. Scientists have determined this using radiometric dating (measurement of radioactive decay) of meteorites and analysis of isotopes in Earth materials. As early Earth formed, it heated up to 2000 ⁰C (3632 ⁰F). ⁴ The heat allowed dense elements to sink to the center of the earth, while light elements floated toward the surface

The Earth is characterized by the following three distinct "regions:" (1) the atmosphere, (2) hydrosphere, and (3) lithosphere.

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the gas that surrounds the body of the planet. It has an average thickness of 100-km (60 mi.). The atmosphere consists of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.9%) and trace amounts of helium, neon, nitrous oxide, methane and ozone. Variable amounts of water vapor and carbon dioxide can also be detected in the atmosphere.⁵

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere covers 71% of the Earth’s surface. The hydrosphere includes all bodies of water, including the oceans, inland seas, lakes, rivers and underground waters. The hydrosphere also includes water in glaciers and water in the atmosphere. The hydrosphere consists of water, sodium chloride-salt (3.5%) and smaller amounts of magnesium, sulfur, calcium and other elemental ions. Its average thickness is 5 km (8 mi.).⁶ The average depth of the oceans is 3794 m (12,447 ft.), yet its mass is only 1/4400 of the total mass of the earth.⁷

The hydrosphere began forming 4 billion years ago during a period of global melting. Chemical compounds and light elements such as water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, and some oxygen, dissolved in magma moving upward from the upper mantle. Gravity prevented many of these elements from escaping into space. However, hydrogen easily escaped to space because it was too light to be held by gravity. Because oxygen is so chemically reactive it quickly formed compounds with various elements (including hydrogen) until oxygen, produced by oxygen producing microbes allowed build up in the atmosphere to current levels. As the Earth continued to cool, the water vapor condensed and began filling the ocean basins. The amount of water on Earth has remained more or less constant since its release from the atmosphere 4 billion years ago.⁸

It is obvious that most of the earth’s water supply is stored in the oceans (97%). However what is surprising is the amount of water stored elsewhere. Glaciers and ice caps store just over 2% of the Earth’s water. Groundwater, our primary source of water (in Albuquerque) represents only 0.62% of the Earth’s water. Lakes contain 0.009% of the Earth’s water supply, while atmospheric moisture and rivers account for a mere 0.001% and 0.0001 % respectively.⁹

The amount of water on Earth has remained nearly constant for billions of years due in part to the hydrologic cycle (water cycle). The hydrologic cycle is a continuous circulation of water between the Earth’s atmosphere and crust. ¹⁰ ( The City of Albuquerque-Public Works Department provides a useful classroom poster illustrating Albuquerque’s water cycle in terms of transpiration, percolation, runoff and evaporation.)

Lithosphere

The Lithosphere includes the crust and upper-mantle, which are divided into 13 tectonic plates. The middle mantle, lower mantle and the core lie below the lithosphere. The crust has an average thickness of 40 km (25 mi.).¹¹ Rocks found in the crust are almost entirely made up of 11 elements. The most abundant is oxygen (46.6%), followed by silicon (27.72%), aluminum (8.13%), iron (5%), calcium (3.63%), sodium (2.83%), potassium (2.59%), magnesium (2.09%), and titanium, hydrogen, and phosphorus (totaling less than 1%). Several other trace elements can be found in amounts of 0.1% to 0.02%. These elements include; carbon, manganese, sulfur, barium chlorine, chromium, fluorine, zirconium, nickel, strontium, vanadium, and precious metals such as gold and silver. These elements are rarely found in their free state. Instead they are usually combined in various combinations to form compounds in the crystalline state known as minerals.¹²

The dense mantle extends from the base of the crust (40 km/25mi) to a depth of 2900 km (1800 mi.).¹³ It consists of iron and magnesium, silicon and oxygen. The mantle is solid except for a zone between 70 km (44 mi.) and 200 km (125 mi.) known as the asthenosphere consisting of weak "soft" rock.¹⁴

The core extends from the base of the mantle (2900km/1800mi) to the Earth’s center 6400km (4000 mi.).¹⁵ It is composed of a liquid outer core and a solid inner core consisting of iron and nickel. The temperature in the core is estimated to be as high as 6650 ⁰C (12,000 ⁰F).¹⁶

Plate Tectonics

In 1912, a German meteorologist, Alfred Wegener, proposed the first theory of continental drift. Through observation Wegener realized present day continents resembled pieces of a "jig saw" puzzle. He therefore concluded that continents drifted apart from a single supercontinent he called "Pangaea." Wegener was able to find a match between fossils on the coast of South America and the coast of Africa even though the Atlantic Ocean separates both continents. However, scientists could not explain how or why the continents drifted. In the 1960’s the idea of continental drift was finally accepted when scientists discovered that the Earth’s lithosphere is broken into plates and interior forces allow the plates to move along the Earth’s surface.¹⁷ The lithospheric plates are composed of light colored continental granite and a dark oceanic basalt rock. The oceanic rock is generally thinner and denser than continental rock.¹⁸

About 250 million years ago, during a period of widespread crustal unrest, a supercontinent (Pangaea) formed by aggregation of pre-existing continental fragments. The existing continents are the drifting fragments of this supercontinent, produced by the break-up of Pangaea that started over 200 million years ago. The theory of Plate tectonics describes the evolution of the earth in terms of the movement and interaction of 13 semi-rigid lithospheric plates that are constantly moving toward, away from, and past each other.¹⁹ The weak "soft" rock of the asthenosphere and the convection within the mantle enable the plates of these continents to drift across the Earth’s surface. The boundaries of these plates are zones where tectonic activity such as earthquakes, volcanism and other processes are favored. Plate tectonic processes also affect global climate and climate change.²⁰

The North American lithospheric plate has been moving westward for at least 66 million years. It appears that this plate is very slowly separating along the famous Rio Grande Rift. Million of years from now an ocean may eventually separate the North American plate.²¹

Albuquerque’s unique geology is the result of a series of distinct changes in the Earth over millions of years. One of the oldest features in Albuquerque is the granite found in nearby mountains. Sandia granite was formed 1.5 billion years ago when hot liquid rock (magma) was injected into existing bedrock deep below the earth’s surface. After the formation of Sandia granite, (not the Sandia mountains), very little is known about the local geology. A long period of erosion flattened the landscape and erased more than 1 billion years of geologic history. This time period is called "The Great Unconformity." ²²

"The Great Unconformity" ended 300 million years ago with most of New Mexico covered by shallow seaways. Many marine creatures found a home near shore waters. These remains are embedded into sediments on the ocean floor. A lime deposit over the Sandia granite hardened and became well layered.²³

The shallow seas retreated and evaporated 250 million years ago allowing reptiles (dinosaurs included) and some early mammals to find a home on the floodplains and near-shore marshes.²⁴

Between 70 and 90 million years ago, three major events occurred. North America broke away from Europe and started to drift westward. Then a second sea briefly covered parts of New Mexico, bringing with it more swamps and life forms. Finally, the "Age of Reptiles" ended; as many as 75% of all life forms became extinct. Some scientists believe an asteroid or several asteroids collided with Earth. Dust from the collision may have partially or totally blocked sunlight from reaching the Earth for several years. As a result, the Earth cooled, plants died from lack of sun and rain, and animals died because of a lack of a food supply.²⁵

The Rio Grande Rift began forming about 25 million years ago. The rift was formed when fractures due to tension and stretching caused a large block of Earth crust to down-drop. As the down-drop occurred the land on both sides began to rise. The Sandia Mountains, composed of granite and limestone that formed 300 million years ago, are a result of this uplifting. Some of the same layers of limestone that can be found atop the Sandia crest (10,000 ft above sea level) lie buried below the city at a depth of 15,000 ft below sea level (5 miles total). The Rio Grande Rift extends more than 600 miles from Mexico to Colorado. Albuquerque lies in the center of this North –South rift, one of the few continental rifts worldwide. The western edge of the rift lies along the Rio Puerco and the eastern edge lies at the base of the Sandia Mountains (approx. 30 miles wide). The rift remains active as it continues to grow and possibly separate the North American Plate millions of years from now.²⁶

About 190,000 years ago a fault line (fracture) within the rift developed. Hot liquid magma made its way to the surface to form the five north-south volcanoes on the city’s west side.²⁷

The Rio Grande first flowed into closed basins along the rift, as the basins filled with rock debris, rivers and streams joined until the Rio Grande became a through flowing river between 2 and 5 million years ago.²⁸ It is only within the last 100,000 years that the Rio Grande entered the valley following the rift line. The Rift valley was slowly filled with thousands of feet of porous sediment. With time, rain, and river water, a very large underground reservoir formed, which would one day supply the water needs of a growing city--Albuquerque.²⁹

The Rio Grande is a shallow river that travels a distance of 1878 miles from the Rocky Mountains to the Gulf of Mexico. In North America it is second in length to the Mississippi/Missouri combination.

It has been projected that by the year 2000 nearly all states west of the Mississippi River will experience a water shortage. ³⁰ The city of Albuquerque currently relies on groundwater in the local aquifer to meet the water needs of the area. Groundwater has been described as excess surface water that percolates through the earth’s crust because of gravity and the porous nature of soil, rock and sediment.³¹

An aquifer is a rock or sediment structure that is porous, permeable and contains water. The Albuquerque Basin aquifer consists of a "deep" and "shallow" aquifer stored in an alluvial basin within the Rio Grande Rift. The aquifer consists of mostly sand and gravel, which was deposited millions of years ago in the geologic formation known as "The Upper Santa Fe Group".³² The aquifer extends from Cochiti to Socorro (north-south) and Tijeras Canyon to the Rio Puerco (east-west).

There is a thin (60-80 ft) shallow aquifer zone located just below the Rio Grande floodplain. It is composed of sand and gravel combined with silt and clay in some areas.³³ This water is not of high quality and is not currently used by the city.

The deep aquifer has a rugged topography with as much as 15,000 feet of relief forming deep basins, mountain ridges and gaps. It consists of five major depressions, each containing sub-basins, which in turn crisscross with other geologic features (i.e. faults, flexures, benches, grabens and prongs) that affect water flow.³⁴

Water from the deep aquifer provides such a natural high quality water to the city of Albuquerque that it requires only minimal treatment. Chlorine is added to the water to prevent the growth of microbiological organisms. In 1983 residents voted to add fluorine to the water supply as a dental protection measure. Unfortunately there are naturally occurring contaminants in Albuquerque’s water, however all are currently below the federal standards. If federal standards change, treatment may be required.

The aquifer does not contain as much water as it was once believed. In 1993 the United States Geologic Survey released a study concluding that the water level in portions of the aquifer had declined 160 ft since 1960.

Recharge is the refilling of the aquifer. The rate of recharge is affected by the large amount of water pumped from the aquifer. The addition of riverside drains and canals along with changes in agriculture have also had an effect on recharge rate.³⁵ Mountain front recharge (melting of snow), Rio Grande River recharge, percolation due to precipitation and canal seepage are currently recharging the aquifer.

Natural recharge occurs very slowly and does not replace water as fast as it is being pumped out. It is possible, however, to use injection wells near recharge windows/corridors to help increase the rate of recharge. Recharge windows/corridors are permeable areas on or near the surface that have a high potential for rapid recharge of the aquifer. Albuquerque has several of these areas along the base of the Sandia Mountains.³⁶

The City of Albuquerque operates 93 wells, which are distributed over 200 square miles and provides water to over 470,000 residents. These wells can pump over 300 million gallons of water per day. Albuquerque also has 44 storage tanks, which can hold 206 million gallons of water.³⁷ Unfortunately we live with a limited water supply.

In hope of ensuring a "sustainable water supply" the City has established "Albuquerque’s Resource Strategy." Mayor Jim Baca stated "One of Albuquerque’s most critical challenges is the provision of a sustainable water supply. The City is meeting this challenge on three fronts: implementation of the Albuquerque/Bernalillo County Groundwater Protection Plan; implementation of an aggressive water conservation program; and working toward optimizing both our surface and ground water by using San Juan/Chama surface water for drinking water and by reclaiming and reusing industrial wastewater."³⁸

In 1994 the City of Albuquerque adopted the first component of the Water Resource Strategy, the Groundwater Protection Policy and Action Plan. The goal is to protect groundwater by finding and cleaning contaminated groundwater and promoting responsible use of groundwater.

In 1995 the City Council launched one of the nations most comprehensive water conservation programs. The goal of the program is a city wide 30% reduction in water use per person in 10 years (by 2005). The residential community uses 71% of Albuquerque’s water, followed by the Commercial (17%), Institutional (9%) and Industrial (3%) sectors of the city.³⁹ From 1987 to 1994 the average per capita water use in Albuquerque was 250 gallons per capita per day (gpcd) – one of the highest in the Southwest (Tucson-155; Santa Fe-160; El Paso-175; Phoenix-220 gpcd).⁴⁰ The cost of water remains one of the lowest in the Southwest at $0.86 per unit (1unit equals100 cubic feet or 748 gallons).

The City has maintained a strong water conservation campaign with the slogan "Reduce Your Use Save Our Water". A few of the conservation measures include:

• Public awareness campaign via mail and media (billing inserts, television commercials, etc.).
• "Operation Water Flow" provides credit on water bill for replacement of high-flow to low-flow water devices.
• Free audit of in/outdoor water use with recommendation to help reduce use.
• Strong emphasis on xeriscaping.
• "Water Waste" violations/fees
• Water education programs.
• Implementation of the "City’s Water Conservation Landscaping and Water Waste Ordinance" (New homes can not have more than 20% high water use plants.)
• Implementation of the "Large Water User Policy" (greater than 50,000 gal/day used) which allows the development of an individualized plan to reduce water use by 30% by 2004.
• Evaluation/testing of sprinkler water sensors.

In 1998 the average per capita water use for Albuquerque was down to 213 gpcd. These conservation measures have resulted in a savings of 28 billion gallons of water thus far.⁴¹

In 1997 the City adopted the third component of the Water Resource Strategy. The project is designed to eliminate our dependence on the groundwater supply by combining groundwater and river water to: ⁴²

• Recycle industrial wastewater for industrial supply and irrigation.
• Capture San Juan/Chama water using underground galleries or existing canals.
• Purify the river water to drinking water standards.
• Deliver the purified river water throughout the City’s service area.
• Enhance recharge in the central area and pump shallow groundwater for irrigation.
• Aquifer Storage and Recovery- Inject treated drinking water into the aquifer for retrieval when needed.
• Return about half of the water to the river after purification. Use some of it to irrigate parks and turf areas.
• Provided further treatment for wastewater effluent to supply local irrigation needs.
• Reduce groundwater pumping to renewable levels.

 

What is water? Water is a polar molecular compound composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom (H₂O). The hydrogen and oxygen atoms are held together by a covalent bond in which the electrons are unequally shared. Water has several unique physical properties. A physical property is a property, which can be observed or measured without changing the chemical composition of the substance.

Density

Density is the ratio of mass and volume in a given substance. Gases are less dense than liquids. The solid form of a substance is usually denser than its liquid form; the exception to this statement is water. Solid water (ice) at 0 ⁰C has a density of 0.9167 g/ml, while liquid water at 4 ⁰C has a density of 1.000 g/ml. As water freezes it expands, contrary to the behavior of most liquids, which contract, thereby increasing its volume and decreasing its density. As a result solid ice floats on liquid water. This unique property is important to aquatic life in rivers and lakes. Imagine the consequence of solid ice sinking in liquid water. ⁴³

Surface Tension

Water has a high surface tension compared to other liquids. Surface tension is the inward force, which tends to minimize the surface area of all liquids. Surface tension tends to hold drops of liquid in a spherical shape. The greater the surface tension the more spherical a drop will be. It is the high surface tension of water that allows some insects to "walk" on water. The downward force of gravity on the insect is less than the force of attraction between water molecules. The surface tension of water can be decreased by adding a wetting agent (such as soap) to interfere with the strong intermolecular attraction (hydrogen-bonding) between water molecules.⁴⁴

Specific Heat

Water has a high specific heat or heat capacity. Specific heat measures the ability of a substance to store heat energy. Specific heat is the amount of heat need to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 ⁰C. The specific heat of water is 1.00 cal/g⁰C whereas the specific heat of iron is 0.107 cal/g ⁰C. To increase the temperature of iron by 1⁰C, only 1/10 as much heat is needed compared to the amount needed to raise the temperature of water. On a warm day water absorbs heat from the environment, lowering the air temperature. On a cool night heat is transferred from the water to its cooler environment, raising the air temperature.⁴⁵

Solvent

Water has often been described as the universal solvent. Since many substances can dissolve in water, chemically pure water does not exist in nature. A solution is a combination of a solute and a solvent. A solute is the dissolved substance. A solvent is the substance doing the dissolving. In a salt-water solution, salt is the solute (dissolves) and water is the solvent (does the dissolving). Solutions in which water is the solvent are called aqueous solutions. ⁴⁶ Unfortunately many substances can dissolve in water, thus the quality of groundwater is compromised.

Suggested Activities/Assessment

1. Geologic Timeline

Purpose: Give students a visual understanding of geologic time and their place in it.

Use a long piece of butcher paper to create a timeline in the classroom. Attach paper to a wall and separate it into 5 equal sections, each representing 1 billion years, further subdivide each section into millions of years. Use a geologic time scale to plot key geologic events.

2. Continental Jigsaw Puzzle

Purpose: Give students the opportunity to recreate Pangaea and relate it to the current location of the continents

Provide students with pictures of the continents and the continental shelves from an Earth Science (geology) textbook. Have students cut all pieces then attach the continents onto the appropriate continental shelves. Students can now arrange the continental "jigsaw puzzle" so all pieces fit together.

3. Model Earth Interior

Purpose: Give students insight to the interior of the Earth

Have students draw and label the regions and sub-regions of the Earth including thickness, chemical composition, and physical state.

4. Condensation/Distillation

Purpose: Allow students to visualize the condensation of water vapor and relate it to the filling of ocean basins.

Set up a distillation apparatus. Allow students to observe the distillation process and explain the condensation process.

5. Local Geology

Purpose: Give students the opportunity to really look at Albuquerque’s landscape and relate it to the geologic past.

Show students the Sandia Mountains and West Side Volcanoes and discuss the geologic significance. If it is not possible to take students to each site, find a location at the school, which provides the best view. The Rio Grande Nature Center would make an excellent field trip to discuss the importance of the Rio Grande.

6. Water Use Awareness

Purpose: Help students become aware of their water use habits.

Have students list all of their actions and activities from the time they awoke until the time they entered the classroom. As soon as the list is complete have students identify all the activities and actions that required the direct use of water.

Bonus: Have students write a short scenario of how their day may have been different if they had woken up and the "well was dry"

7. Water Use Diary

Purpose: Help students relate their personal/family water use with the local and national average.

Have students record all the water used in their home over a three-day period, then calculate the average water used per person in their home. Have students graph their average and the average of their classmates and then calculate a class average. Compare and discuss their personal average water use to the class, local and national averages. Were these days typical of any other day? What factors should be considered when looking at average water use?

8. Analysis of water bills

Have students use their family water bill to calculate the average number of gallons of water used per day. Students with personal wells should seek out a relative or friend and ask to borrow their water bill. (For student who cannot get a water bill or forget to bring one, a sample water bill will be provided.) After calculating the daily average, compare average to the average over their three-day period.

9. Keep a bulletin board of water related articles and/or cartoons clips of local, regional and national interest.

Purpose: Help students realize that water issues are "real-life" issues and concerns.

After reading the articles students should be able to identify the issue, the relevant chemical facts, any proposed or hypothesized solutions and political implications. Have students write a reaction paper to the article or perhaps use topics as possible debate issues.

10. Create water conservation pamphlet

Purpose: To assess student understanding of Albuquerque’s water supply

Have students prepare a water conservation pamphlet for the school/community.

    11. Physical properties of water.
          Purpose: Help students relate the importance of water’s physical properties to the environment.

Density: Have students determine the density of water and compare it to the density of other substances. What if the density of ice was higher than the density of liquid water? What effect would it have on aquatic life?

Solubility: Have students test the solubility of various substances (solids and liquids) in water. Why is water called the universal solvent? How does water’s solubility effect the environment in terms of groundwater?

Specific heat (high for water)
Have students compare the specific heat of water to other substances.

Why must water give off lots of heat in order to freeze? Why does the high specific heat of water makes the climate warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer near large bodies of water?

End Notes

1. Merrits, Dorothy, et al. Environmental Geology. New York: Freeman and Co, 1998. P 33.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid., 81
5. American Chemical Society. Chemistry in the Community Dubuque: Kendall-Hunt, 1988. P 120.
6. Ibid.
7. "Earth", Microsoft ® Encarta ® 97 Encyclopedia © 1993-1996 Microsoft Corp.
8. Merrits, 44
9. American Chemical Society, 17
10. Ibid., 550
11. Ibid., 120
12. "Earth" Microsoft Encarta
13. American Chemical Society. 120
14. Merrits, 39
15. Plummer, Charles C., and David McGeary. Physical Geology. Dubuque: WC Brown, 1988. P 10.
16. "Earth" Microsoft Encarta
17. Merrits, 12
18. Chronic, Halka. Roadside Geology of New Mexico. Missoula: Mountain Press, 1986. P 4.
19. "Permian Period," Microsoft ® Encarta ® 97 Encyclopedia. © 1993-1996 Microsoft Corp.
20. Merrits, 12
21. Chronic, 6,9
22. Albuquerque: City of Contrasts Committee. Albuquerque: City of Contrasts-Albuquerque’s Environmental Story. 1988. P 4.
23. Ibid.
24. Albuquerque’s Environmental Story-Albuquerque’s Natural Environment.. http://www.cabq.gov/aes/s1geol.html, P 2.
25. Chronic, 29
26. Albuquerque: City of Contrasts, 5
27. Ibid.
28. Chronic, 30
29. Albuquerque’s Environmental Story, 3
30. Merrits, 195
31. Ibid., 234
32. US Bureau of Reclamation. Middle Rio Grande Water Assessment-Citizen Summary. 1997. P 4.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid., 2
35. Ibid., 6-7
36. Ibid.,4
37. Albuquerque’s Environmental Story –Water. http://www.cabq.gov/aes/s5water.html, P 2-3.
38. City of Albuquerque-Water Conservation Annual Report 1998. P 1.
39. City of Albuquerque-Reduce Your Use Save Our Water. Pamphlet
40. City of Albuquerque-Welcome to the Desert. Pamphlet
41. Water Conservation Annual Report. P 2
42. Ibid., 10
43. American Chemical Society, 22
44. Wilbraham, Anthony C., et al. Chemistry. Menlo Park: Addison-Wesley, 1987. P 351.
45. Ibid., 352
46. American Chemical Society, 24

Albuquerque: City of Contrasts Committee. Albuquerque: City of Contrasts-Albuquerque’s Environmental Story. 1988.

Albuquerque’s Environmental Story-Albuquerque’s Natural Environment. http://www.cabq.gov/aes/s1geol.html

Albuquerque’s Environmental Story –Water. http://www.cabq.gov/aes

American Chemical Society. Chemistry in the Community. Dubuque: Kendall-Hunt, 1988.

Chronic, Halka. Roadside Geology of New Mexico. Missoula: Mountain Press, 1986.

City of Albuquerque-Water Conservation Annual Report 1998.

City of Albuquerque-Reduce Your Use Save Our Water. Pamphlet

City of Albuquerque-Welcome to the Desert. Pamphlet

Merrits, Dorothy, et al. Environmental Geology. New York: Freeman and Co, 1998.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 97 Encyclopedia © 1993-1996 Microsoft Corp.

Molles, Manuel C.,Jr., Ecology: Concepts and Applications. Boston: McGraw-Hill. 1999.

Permian Period, Microsoft ® Encarta ® 97 Encyclopedia © 1993-1996 Microsoft Corp.

Plummer, Charles C., and David McGeary. Physical Geology. Dubuque: WC Brown, 1988.

US Bureau of Reclamation. Middle Rio Grande Water Assessment-Citizen Summary. 1997.

Wilbraham, Anthony C., et al. Chemistry. Menlo Park: Addison-Wesley, 1987.

Albuquerque’s Environmental Story-Albuquerque’s Natural Environment. http://www.cabq.gov/aes/s1geol.html   This web site provides a brief overview of Albuquerque’s geologic events.

Albuquerque’s Environmental Story –Water. http://www.cabq.gov/aesl. This web site provides information regarding Albuquerque’s water supply.

Chronic, Halka. Roadside Geology of New Mexico. Missoula: Mountain Press, 1986.General geologic terms are discussed in relation to New Mexico Geology.

City of Albuquerque Public Works Department (5^th floor in City Hall) has a variety of educational resources (coloring books, posters, videos etc.)

City of Albuquerque-Water Conservation Annual Report 1998. A summary of Albuquerque’s efforts and results of water conservation.

Wilbraham, Anthony C., et al. Chemistry. Menlo Park: Addison-Wesley, 1987. A high school textbook with general chemistry information.

Albuquerque’s Environmental Story-Albuquerque’s Natural Environment. http://www.cabq.gov/aes/s1geol.html

This web site provides a brief overview of Albuquerque’s geologic events.

Albuquerque’s Environmental Story –Water. http://www.cab.gov/aes/s5water.html. This web site provides information regarding Albuquerque’s water supply.

American Chemical Society. Chemistry in the Community. Dubuque: Kendall-Hunt, 1988. A high school textbook which provides easy to read general chemistry information.

Chronic, Halka. Roadside Geology of New Mexico. Missoula: Mountain Press, 1986. General geologic terms are discussed in relation to New Mexico Geology.

Slow the Flow-City of Albuquerque Public Works Department.  A high school guide to conserving and protecting Albuquerque’s water.

Table of Contents
Introduction
Narrative
Overview of Earth Systems
Pedosphere
Properties of Soil
Ecosystems
Human Impact
Conclusion
Lesson Plan #1: Introduction to Soils
Lesson Plan #2: Student Field Trip to Coronado Monument
Lesson Plan #3: Student Field Trip to Elena Gallegos
Lesson Plan #4: Student Field Trip to Rio Grand Nature Center
Lesson Plan #5: Plant an outdoor study area on school grounds to attract wildlife
Lesson Plan #6: Test Soil Textures
Lesson Plan #7: Test Soil Particle Sizes
Lesson Plan #8: The Great Land Public Meeting
Assessment
Notes
Bibliography
Teacher's Reading List
Student Reading List
Teacher Material List
Glossary

The primary goal of teaching is to prepare students for the decision-making responsibilities of this country and of the Earth. A goal of science in middle school is to develop a holistic understanding of our living dynamic planet. It is important for middle school students to understand that humans control the growth around them and that they are responsible for the care of the environment. Humans have control or impact in many other ways. They decide how much land and food is allocated for the other species of the planet. Our technology has brought us many wonderful things but in the meantime it has brought us awesome responsibilities. (1)

This curriculum has been designed for my family of 8^th grade students from Cleveland Middle School in the Northeast Heights in Albuquerque, NM. The staff at our school values students and we have overcome many obstacles together. We have restructured the school so that teams of teachers have core classes with the same students (60 instead of 150 per day), forming families which give every student a place to belong. The students that belong to the family I teach in (two regular education teachers and one gifted teacher) are marked by diversity in learning styles, ability (from behavior disordered and special need to gifted and everything in between), life experiences, and economic status. Our student population is usually about forty percent Anglo and the other sixty percent come from Hispanic, Native American, Afro-American, Asian, and Middle Eastern cultures. One third of the population at the school is on free or reduced lunch.

Our students are from middle class single-family dwellings interspersed with apartment complexes along major streets. The landscaping in this area ranges from bluegrass and plant life from the eastern part of the United States to yards with rock and gravel with native plants. Many of the students are indifferent to the environment as they see no effect of it on their daily life. Also, our neighborhoods are completely built up so they do not see the effect of growth on our area.

This curriculum unit will introduce/reacquaint the students with the challenges that urbanization is bringing to our land; locally, in our country, and globally. The students will gather, organize, record and apply data about soils from the Elena Gallegos area, the Rio Grande Nature Center, the Coronado State Park and their neighborhoods. In their groups they will formulate questions and draw conclusions about what urbanization has done to the soils in their neighborhood. They will then be given a hypothetical situation to study, collect information for and prepare for a "public meeting." The students will be divided into special interest groups including estate property owners, the "greenies" (a local environmental watchdog group), a local Native American tribe, a developer, and the city economic development committee. They will argue their point orally and in a paper to be handed in.

As part of their Service Learning component the students will redesign and improve an area of the school to create an outdoor study area to attract wildlife and birds. They can take the skills they have learned and create a micro nature center at their school.

This curriculum is designed to meet the learning styles of all students as it has components from "The Seven Types of Intelligences" of Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences. They include linguistic, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, musical, interpersonal and intrapersonal.(2)

At the conclusion of this unit the students will understand the impact of growth and urbanization on the pedosphere sub-system of Earth.

Overview of Earth Systems

Newly recognized environmental issues have created the need for new disciplines and combinations of established disciplines in science, such as geochemistry and environmental geoscience. The need for these new studies is the realization of how the Earth’s sub-systems interact with one another to create one single system. There need to be scientists who can traverse within different traditional scientific boundaries, because environmental issues do not come in a neat package. (3)

The Gaia hypothesis (named for the Greek goddess of the Earth) is the name given to this way of thinking from scientists James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis. It is believed that all the living animals and plants on Earth have an influence on what happens to the physical Earth. In turn, it is believed that the living things on Earth serve as a control to balance global temperatures and other characteristics of the planet. Think of our planet with no trees. What would happen to the temperature? So, the Earth and the living things on the Earth are in a delicate "checks and balance" situation that we, the caretakers of the Earth, must be constantly aware of.(4)

The five sub-systems that Earth system scientists look at include the lithosphere (the crust of the Earth), the pedosphere (the broken down rock and organic matter that becomes soil), the hydrosphere (water), the biosphere (living and nonliving matter) and the atmosphere (includes the hydrosphere, pedosphere, biosphere). (5)

Pedosphere

The pedosphere takes in all of the decomposed organic matter and broken down rock that covers all of the land surface of the Earth. It has a very important role as it is considered the membrane of the Earth, doing much of the same function as a membrane in an egg that holds the yolk together. Scientists refer to this as the geomembrane. It can measure from one meter to about 200 meters thick and starts on the soil where we place our feet every day. It has a very important function as it connects and moves mass and energy to and from the hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Gases, solid matter and ions move up from the lithosphere and feed the pedosphere with nutrients that benefit the biosphere. (6)

Weathering

Rock and minerals decompose in the pedosphere sub-system by the process called weathering. There are three types of weathering: physical, chemical and biological. Weathering, which can take tens of thousands of years to break down the matter, turns the rocks into soil that gives the living things of the Earth elements needed for life. Weathering is an important process in the formation of soil. (7)

Physical Weathering

There are many ways physical weathering can take place. Rocks can be buried under other material and if that material is taken away, as in erosion, the underlying rock that has been under so much pressure is released and the rock fractures.

Forest and range fires can cause thermal expansion where the fire is so hot that it peels thin layers of rocks apart. The result is called thermal weathering.

When water settles in crevices of rocks and freezes, the frost expands and causes the rocks to break up. This is called frost weathering.

Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering is reaction between the minerals in the rocks and water, oxygen and ions in the biosphere, hydrosphere and the atmosphere. Through the chemical process the minerals and rocks break down and decompose.(8)

Most chemical weather is caused by water. Some rocks break down easily in water because they are soluble. Gases from the atmosphere when combined with water can become acids that can break down rocks.

When oxygen combines with the rocks, the process of oxidation takes place and an entirely new substance is formed. For instance iron in rocks combines with oxygen to form iron oxide or rust. (9) That is where the red rocks of our area are created.

Water, combined with carbon dioxide, creates carbonic acid. When this reacts with rocks it causes carbonation. This sinks into the pedosphere and dissolves the rocks on and below the surface. (10)

A byproduct of industry in certain areas is sulfurous gas. When combined with water, the chemical formed is sulfuric acid. If this water is taken up into the clouds as part of the water cycle, when it returns to the Earth it is called acid rain. This is highly acidic and has strong corrosive properties that weaken rock and minerals quickly.(11)

Plants, such as lichens and mosses, can cause chemical weathering because they make weak acids that disintegrate the minerals in the rocks. (12)

Biological weathering

Living matter can cause rocks to break apart and decompose. Plant roots, especially trees, can break down and disaggregate rock material. An example is what we see trees do to sidewalks in town. They have the ability to move pavement and break up cement.

Animals that live underground can cause biological weathering. Moles, prairie dogs, birds, insects and most of all worms can cause the breakdown of rocks in the pedosphere. (13)

Properties of Soils

It can take from several hundred to a thousand years to make one inch of soil. The weathering of the rocks, the breaking down of the organic matter, and climate, which includes rain and temperature, all contribute to the building of soil on the pedosphere.

Soil Profile

Soil is defined by Earth scientists as an internally organized, natural body of weathered minerals and organic material arranged in soil horizons. These horizons are parallel to the Earth's surface. The soil profile is the sequence of the soil horizons in a vertical arrangement. The chemical compositions differ greatly between moist, dry and wet climates of soil profiles, but they do have the characteristics of soil horizons structure in common. The top soil horizon, the one we walk on, is called O horizon. It holds the dead plant and animal litter. The next layer down is the A horizon which is commonly called topsoil. The B horizon is the next layer down. They are mineral rich and vary in colors from blues to browns. The last layer is the C horizon that has fractured and weathered parent material or bedrock.(15)

Soil Forming

Soils differ greatly from climate to climate however, all soils have five distinct soil-forming factors in common which are: climate, relief of the ground surface, nature and composition of parent material, the amount of time which the soil has formed, and the amount and types of living matter. (16)

Of all of these, climate may be the most important factor. The amount of water from rain and snowfall affects the speed of the weathering process for the movement and removal of material through the soil profile. Temperature, especially high temperatures, speed up chemical weathering reactions. (17)

Soil formation also comes from the lithosphere, which adds mineral matter up from the rock and sediment. Stored in these minerals are elements that are essential for living organisms to sustain life.

The weathering processes mentioned earlier change primary minerals to secondary minerals. This releases ions from the minerals that are absorbed into the water in the soil so that they are available to living organisms.

New soils begin in many ways from different new rock material such as lava or volcanic material, or deposits of sand and gravel from glaciers or intrusive igneous rocks that are pushed to the surface by mountain-building activity. (19)

The hydrosphere transfers solids and dissolved materials throughout the soil horizons and takes ions out of the soil profiles. The ions are then washed into the groundwater that then sends the ions into streams.

The organic matter from the biosphere enters the soil as decaying organic matter, or litter, which is dead plants and animals. As the material decays it releases carbon dioxide gas, most of which is released into the atmosphere. The nutrients released by the decay are used by living soil organisms and plants.

All of these processes go on simultaneously to build soil and it is a long process, something that must be thought of in geologic time, not human time.

Ecosystems

Earlier it was discussed that Earth system scientists look at different sub-systems as a part of the whole. The ecosystem is another part of that network of systems that all work into the Earth system. According to Molles, "an ecosystem is a biological community plus all of the abiotic factors influencing that community." (20)

During the building of soil, the ecosystem is building also. Each organism prepares the area for the next organism until it reaches a point where the organisms are very sophisticated and complex. This is called succession.

Primary Succession

There are three stages to primary succession. The first stage is the pioneer stage where there is bare, solid rock. The name comes from the fact that the organisms are the first to colonize the bare rock. Lichens are the "colonists" for this stage. Their growth is slow for it may take a hundred years for a lichen to grow to the size of a dinner plate. As the lichen breaks down the rock, a thin layer of soil begins to form. (21)

This layer of soil is important to the next stage of the process which is called the intermediate stage. This is where small plants, insects, worms and bacteria can start to develop and the lichens disappear.

From here the soils keep building and new plants and animals appear and they are more complex and live longer. The more soil that is formed, the larger the root systems of the plants and thus the larger the animals that can be supported and sheltered by that system. This is what is called the climax stage. (22)

The process of the community moving from one stage to another is called a seral or successional stage. The whole process, from pioneer to climax, is referred to as a sere.

A climax community can be identified by the following characteristics: it can reproduce itself, it has as much material and energy coming in as going out, it has a large variety of organisms, and they interact with one another. (23)

Secondary Succession

Sometimes a community suffers from some sort of cataclysm, such as a forest fire or flood. When the community starts to build back up it is called secondary succession. It has to go through the same process as primary succession but usually does not have to start with the bare rock stage and it is able to come back quicker. (25)

Human Impact

Before this was an urban society humans as far back as the hunters and gatherers were keenly observant of nature and any changes that took place. They knew the habits of the animal they hunted for food and where to find plants for eating and medicines. Farmers all over the world have been and are aware of what the best soils are and what kinds of weather will affect their crops and livestock. (24)

Since we are so much an urban society, those of us who live in one are perhaps indifferent to what goes on in nature. As our world grows smaller it is more important to be aware of our relationship with other species and the environment. Our species is rapidly changing the Earth's environment and we must educate ourselves to try to understand the consequences of our actions. A soil that has taken tens of thousands of years to develop can be wiped out in a day with a bulldozer. Contamination of our water system can happen with the leaching into the groundwater deposits from some forgotten underground gasoline tank.

We must become more aware of the human impact factor in the area around us. The ecosystem is a delicate balance and yet we bury it under concrete. There has to be some long term effect we are not aware of yet, because the hard part is that we look at time through human time, not geologic time. The impact of what we have done to our Earth may not be known for a long time or it may be in a few years. Albuquerque has recently found out there was an abandoned dry cleaning establishment in downtown years ago where the dry-cleaning solvents were never properly disposed of and are now leaching into our soil under the downtown area. The solvent is in close proximity to many of the city's drinking water wells and this could cause a problem in the not too distant future. The owner and the heirs of the dry cleaner are all deceased so the taxpayers somehow will take over the burden of this.

Conclusion

The pedosphere, which we depend on for our food, our outdoor recreation, our daily life, is a delicate living and non-living sub-system of the larger Earth system. It takes years beyond many lifetimes to build up soils but not long at all to destroy them. Education and awareness into this process is important for our daily life and those that follow us.

Lesson Plan #1: Introduction to Soils

Objective: The students will understand what the curriculum that they will be working on for the next few weeks will consist of .

Purpose: To introduce the soils unit to the students.

Introduction: The teacher will play Grofe's Grande Canyon Suite while presenting a slide show of local geological sites, including those that will be in the proposed field trip.

Instruction: The teacher will, through lecture and a handout of the assessment, explain to the students the purpose, the labs, field trips and cumulating activity of the soils unit.

Evaluation: The teacher will keep a log on daily participation points for each student and each student will turn in a journal that contains all of the above information. The journal will have daily entries in narrative form and the students will be required to keep the following sections in their notebook: daily journal entries, vocabulary, lab sheets, field trip notes and sketches, notes and paper on the Great Land Public Meeting, and assessment sheet.

Materials Needed: paper binder with brads that hold three hole notebook paper, three hole notebook paper, pencils, three hole index dividers

Lesson Plan #2: Student Field Trip to Coronado Monument/Kuaua Pueblo*

*Coronado State Monument/Kuaua Pueblo in Bernalillo, New Mexico - Coronado was an early Spanish explorer who, with his troops, visited the area but did not stay at this particular pueblo. Archeologists have never found Spanish artifacts at this site. They have been found further south at an area that until recently was a dairy. This site is state propety and has rangers on site. I call ahead and make reservations for our large group. I also always do a complete run-through of this and any field trip I plan. I also always bring a cell phone.

Objective: To visit an archeological site of the Kuaua Pueblo discuss why the people abandoned the site.

Purpose: The Kuaua Pueblo site was abandoned about 500 years ago. After a tour of the site the students will discuss what was used by the people, what was a renewable resource and what was a finite resource.

Introduction: The students will visit the Kuaua Pueblo site and create theories as to why the people left, what happened to their environment after overuse.

Instruction: The teachers and the students will travel by bus to the site and divide up into three groups of twenty students. One set will sit by the Rio Grande River and draw the Sandia Mountains (which are to the east of the site) and the plant life that is visible from the mountains down to the river. The next set will take a walking tour of the ruins of the Kuaua Pueblo, remembering that nothing is allowed to be disturbed. The third set of students will sit in another area and have a discussion as to what the people would of used on a day today basis to sustain life. The groups would rotate through each assignment. The teacher will ask permission of the ranger to take a few soil sample for testing in the classroom

Evaluation: The students will have entries in their folder for the above assignment which will include sketches, journal entries on tour of the Pueblo and discussion on what happened to the people.

Materials Needed: field trip permission form, water, lunch, sunscreen, insect repellent, suitable clothing and footwear, a hat, lined notebook and plain paper for journal entries, colored pencils, pencils, baggies for soil samples, marker to label samples

Lesson Plan #3: Student Field Trip to Elena Gallegos Open Space, Pino Abayment**

**Elena Gallegos was a woman whose family was given this land as a grant from the King of Spain when this area was New Spain back in the 1500's. It was donated to the City of Albuquerque as an Open Space area. This area has rangers assigned to it and I call ahead to let them know a large group is coming. The hike is on marked and then unmarked trail. A run-through is necessary to find a good site, one that is safe to get in and out of , but with a good horizon.

Objective: To observe a primary succession community in the climax stage.

Purpose: The students will discover an area at the foot of the Sandia Mountains that has had time to build soil undisturbed for tens of thousands of years.

Introduction: The students will be able to observe and study an area that shows what the Albuquerque area looked like, including plant life, before humans altered the landscape.

Instruction: The students will be shown an outcrop that was dug out by water and is in an arroyo that has a soil horizon of about three meters. Assigned students will be able to take samples back to the classroom for testing. Students will be asked to draw the soil horizon and on the terrace, draw the plant life.

Evaluation: The students will have entries in their notebook for the above assignments

Materials Needed: field trip permission form, water, lunch, sunscreen, insect repellent, suitable clothing and footwear, a hat, lined notebook and plain paper for journal entries, colored pencils, pencils, baggies for soil samples, marker to label samples

Lesson Plan #4: Student Field Trip to Rio Grande Nature Center***

***The Rio Grande Nature Center is handicapped-accessible with some reservations and a great place to take people of all ages. I call ahead and make reservations with the ranger. As with the other sites I would do a run-through.

Objective: To see an ecosystem in its intermediate stage of secondary succession.

Purpose: The students will observe an area that has been undisturbed for fifty years.

Introduction: The students will observe the Rio Grande and the riparian forest in the surrounding bosque. This area had been flooded on a regular basis by the Rio Grande River until fifty years ago. A huge dam was built upriver at Cochiti Pueblo and there has been no flooding since. This has given the area all of this time to build up soil. So the students will be able to observe how much soil can be developed in that time period.

Instruction: The students will be divided up into three groups. One group will taken on a mapped hike which is provided by the nature center. Sometime a volunteer is available to guide the hike or the map is clear enough for the hike to be self-guided. The second group will be in the Nature Center building which has many activities for the students to do. The third group will be taken to a site where the teacher will use a knife and dig up one site to show the depth of the soil horizon. A ruler can be used to show the depth of the new soil. A minimum of soil will be taken for a sample and then the soil will be put back as found.

Evaluation: Students will draw sketches of a interesting area or object during the hike and at the Nature Center. Students will record in their journal findings observed in the soil sample dig.

Materials Needed: field trip permission form, water, lunch, sunscreen, insect repellent, suitable clothing and footwear, a hat, lined notebook and plain paper for journal entries, colored pencils, pencils, baggies for soil samples, marker to label samples

Lesson Plan #5: Design and plant a native plant outdoor study area on school grounds

Objective: The students will plant a native plant outdoor study area on the school grounds to attract wildlife and birds.

Purpose: The students will have an active part in creating an ecosystem that will have a positive effect on their school campus and they will be learning about how to repair an ecosystem in a small way. This two-fold purpose is Service Learning, community service and real, hands-on learning.

Introduction: The teacher and students (with the approval of the administration) will do an investigation of the school grounds to find an appropriate site for a micro nature center. The teacher will invite a master gardener as a guest speaker to explain what can be done, give suggestions and to be a resource.

Instruction: The students will divide up into teams, research and keep clear notes in a journal to be turned in on the following: find out what kind of soil is in the plot, measure the plot and create a scale drawing, investigate what kind of native plants do the best with minimal care, plan how to build up the soil (if needed) to help the plants survive better, what kind of wildlife and birds will be attracted to the plant life, how much it will cost, what kind of tools will be required and how long will it take to plant. The teams will also search the Internet to find out about ways to get grants to pay for the project. ( Places to look will be under Service Learning, National Wildlife Federation under the Backyard Wildlife Habitat Program, U.S. Forest Service and local forestation programs.)

Evaluation: The teacher will keep a log on daily participation points for each student and each student will turn in a journal that contains all of the above information. The plot plan will be done on a plain white paper and attached. The rest of the journal entries will have daily entries in narrative form.

Materials Needed: paper binders with three hole brads and pockets, loose leaf notebook paper, pencils, measuring tapes, Internet access

Lesson Plan #6: Test Soil Textures

Objective: To use laboratory techniques to test materials from the field.

Purpose: to learn how to test soil samples in a laboratory setting

Introduction: The students will handle the soils collected to do a soil analysis

Instruction: The students will follow the instructions on the Soil Texture Chart Worksheet

Evaluation: The teacher will give participation points for students as they work in groups. The worksheet will be filled out in a timely manner and all information will be complete.

_______________________________________________________________

Name_______________________________Date_____________

With a piece of soil the size of a golfball do the following test and then record

Soil Texture Chart Worksheet

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
Materials Needed: numbered soil samples, water, paper towels, worksheets, pencil

Lesson Plan #7: Test Soil Particle Sizes

Objective: To use laboratory techniques to test materials from the field.

Purpose: To find out the proportion of materials in the soils samples.

Introduction: The students will dry the materials and analyze the soil.

Instruction: The students will let the sample dry and then weigh the whole sample.Then the material will put in graduated sieves. As they shake the soil through they will have to carefully collect all of the material, sometimes using a brush to get all of the material out of the sieves. Each different sample will then be weighed and should add up to the original weight. The students then can do the math to figure out the percentage.

__________________________________________________________________

Soil Particle Worksheet

____________________________________________________________________

Evaluation: The teacher will give participation points for students as they work in groups. The worksheet will be filled out in a timely manner and all information will be complete.

Materials Needed: numbered soil samples, wax paper. sieves, worksheet, calculator, pencil, scale

Lesson Plan #8: The Great Land Public Meeting

Objective: The students will put on a mock public meeting.

Purpose: The students will learn about political factions that can conflict over land use.

Introduction: The students will be divided up into different special groups and they will then be given a hypothetical situation to study, collect information for and prepare for a "public meeting."

Instruction: The students will be divided into special interest groups including estate property owners, the "greenies" (a local environmental watchdog group) , a local Native American tribe, a developer, and the city economic development committee. They will argue their points orally and in a 500-word paper to be handed in.

Evaluation: The students will be evaluated on how well they argue their points and how much research they were willing to do.

Materials Needed: Newspapers, Internet, interviews

Rubric (this sheet must be in the notebook)

Name_________________________ Date begun_______ Date Completed________

Assignment                                                              possible points             earned points

Lesson #1: notes from lecture                                    ___________              _________

Lesson #2: journal entry, sketches, discussion notes  ___________               __________

Lesson #3: journal entry, sketches                              ___________              __________

Lesson #4: journal entry, sketches                              ___________              ___________

Lesson #5: journal entry, plot plan                              ___________              ___________

Lesson #6: soil texture test worksheet                        ___________               ___________

Lesson #7: soil article test                                          ____________              ___________

Lesson #8: 500 word paper                                      ____________              ___________

Vocabulary list                                                          ____________              ___________

Total Points                                                              ____________              ___________

(Teacher Note: I collect these and grade on a regular basis so that at the end of the unit the grading is manageable)

Camera ( I have an inexpensive "point and shoot" 35mm that I use for my slide pictures, a digital camera would be really nice ), slide film, old knife, shoes, baggies, sharpie pens, backpack or hippack, a friend that is willing to go on run-throughs of the field trips, order busses early in the year after reservations are made (after getting the rate for the bus I divide it by the number of students)

1. Benchmarks
2. Gardner
3. Merrits, et al
4. IBID
5. IBID
6. IBID
7. IBID
8. Coble, et al
9. IBID
10. IBUD
11. IBID
12. IBID
13. Merrits, et al
14. IBID
15. IBID
16. IBID
17. IBID
18. Coble, et al
19. Merrits, et al
20. Molles
21. Enger, et al
22. IBID
23. IBID
24. Molles
25. Enger, et al
26. IBID

American Association for the Advancement of Science. 1993. Benchmarks for Science Literacy. Oxford University Press. New York
Colbe, Charles R., Murray, Elaine G., Rice, Dale R. 1987. Earth Science. Prentice-Hall. Englewood Cliffs, NJ
Enger, Eldon D., Smith, Bradley F. 1992. Environmental Science: A study of Interrelationships. Wm. C. Brown. Dubuque, IA
Gardner, Howard. 1993. Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. Basic Books. New York
Merritts, Dorothy, DeWet, Andrew, Menking, Kirsten. 1998. Environmental Geology. W.H. Freeman and Company. New York
Molles, Manuel C., 1999. Ecology. McGraw-Hill. Boston
Rosner, Hy and Joan, 1996. Albuquerque's Environmental Story. The City of Albuquerque. http://www.cabq.gov/aes/

Recommended Teacher's Reading List
Chronic, Halka. 1986. Roadside Geology of New Mexico. Mountain Press Publishing Co. Missoula, Montana
Logan, William Bryant. 1995. Dirt: the Ecstatic Skin of the Earth. Riverhead Books. New York
McPhee, John. 1983. In Suspect Terrain. Farrar, Straus, Giroux. New York
Rolston, Holmes. 1986. Philosophy Gone Wild: Essays in Environmental Ethics. Prometheus Books. Buffalo, New York
VanCleave, Janice. 1998. A+ Projects in Earth Science. John Wiley and Sons. New York
Wiggers, Raymond. 1993. The Amateur Geologist, Explorations and Investigations. Franklin Watts. New York

Recommended Student's Reading List
Barnes-Svarney, Patricia L. 1990. Clocks in the Rocks: Learning about Earth's Past. Enslow Publishers. Hillside, New Jersey
Baylor, Byrd. 1974. Everybody Needs a Rock. Scribner. New York
Baylor, Byrd. 1972. When Clay Sings. Scribner. New York
Catherall, Ed. 1991. Exploring Soil and Rocks. Steck-Vaughn. Austin, Texas
Seuss, Dr. 1971. The Lorax. Random House. New York
Van Rose, Susanna. 1994. Earth. Dorling Kindersley. New York.
Winckler, Suzanne and Rodgers, Mary M. 1994. Our Endangered Planet. Soil. Lerner Publications. Minneapolis, MN

Glossary
abiotic non-living components in the environment such as atmosphere, water, minerals, and sunlight
adaptation where an organism makes changes either structurally or physiologically to exist in changing conditions in its habitat
alien plant material native to one region but found in another
alluvial fan sediments built up in a fan-like shape, usually at the bottom of a steep slope as it opens on to a plain or valley floor
atmosphere gases that surround the Earth's surface, which includes the hydrosphere, biosphere, pedosphere to about ten thousand kilometers above the Earth
arroyo a Spanish word for gully
biosphere the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) matter that starts at the Earth's surface up to about ten kilometers
biotic living components in the environment, such as plants and animals
bosque Spanish word for wooded area near river
carbonic acid the combination of rain and carbon dioxide in the air
carbonation the process that takes place when matter reacts chemically with carbonic acid
clay microscopic mineral fragments or a sediment that has clay minerals in it
climate the long-term atmospheric and surface conditions of a particular region that include precipitation, temperature and wind
crust Earth's thinnest and least dense rock layer, it is rigid and made up of mostly oxygen and silicon
dirt another term for soil
disaggregate to break apart
ecology the study of the interrelationship between living and non-living things
energy the capacity for doing work
finite resources
Gaia hypothesis the hypothesis that the living components on Earth has an impact on the non-living, physical Earth and vice versa; named after the Greek goddess of the Earth and the mother of the Titans, sometimes spelled Gaea
geologic time the time from the formation of the Earth to the present: the Earth is believed to be about 4.6 billion years old
geology the study of the Earth's history, origin and structure
gully a channel, carved out by water, varying in size from a few meters deep and wide to hundreds of meters wide and can be kilometers long. They are usually dry except after a rain or snow melt
horizon a soil layer
humus organic material in soil which includes plant root, decaying plant and animal matter
human time the time humans have been on Earth and what we perceive as old, such as the Pyramids which are 5,000 years old
hydrosphere the layer of water around Earth's surface made up of surface water, groundwater, oceans, glaciers and water vapor
lithosphere the outermost layer that contains the rock system that begins near the top of the Earth's mantle and includes the crust
litter the uppermost layer of the pedosphere consisting of mostly decaying organic matter
mineral a naturally occurring inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and crystalline structure
outcrop a cutaway of soil so that the soil horizon can be observed. This is usally seen by a road cut or in an arroyo or gully
parent material the solid rock that begins the lithosphere
pedosphere the layer of decomposed organic matter and rock particles covering the Earth's surface; in Greek ped means soil
renewable resources resources that can be renewed as in crops
riparian forest near a river
rock a naturally formed, relatively hard mass of minerals
sand small grains of rock, up to 2mm in size
Service Learning community service with a direct connection to curriculum
soil the top layer of the Earth's surface, composed of clay, sand and humus
soluble matter that dissolves easily in water
succession predictable growth in an ecosystem community growing from bare rock to a climax community where living organisms live in a long-lasting, complex community
system a group of interrelated and interdependent objects
terrace a raised bank of earth having vertical or sloped sides
topography shape of the Earth's surface which includes elevations and structures, both natural and human made
weathering the breaking down of the Earth's surface from chemicals, wind, temperature change, plants, and animals

1. Title
• Toward a Better Understanding of Albuquerque’s Natural Resource: Water

2. Basic Information
• A hands-on curriculum unit intended to study the natural resource, water, in the Albuquerque area.
• This unit will fit in nicely with the middle school Earth Science course.
• Earth science is generally taught in the 6^th or 7^th grade. With all of the activities planned, the reading level should be at least 5^th grade.
• This unit should take approximately three (3) weeks.

2. Objectives of the Unit
• It is hoped that the student will come to an awareness of, appreciation for, and the realization that water;
• is a non-renewable natural resource that needs to be managed
• is essential for all life
• connects all Earth systems
• is a substance with specific physical and chemical properties
• a further bonus would be a greater understanding of the geological occurrences that shaped the Albuquerque/Middle Rio Grande River Valley

4. Topic outline

• Albuquerque’s water, where it comes from
• Physical and chemical properties of water
• Water cycle
• Surface water
• Wetlands
• Groundwater
• Water usage
• Water pollution
• Water treatment
• Water conservation

5. Teaching Procedures/Strategies

• To begin a new lesson, it is often beneficial to brainstorm with your students to see just how much they do know, and how hard you will have to work to get them to understand the subject. So begin with some questions to get them thinking in the right direction. Does anyone know where water comes from? How did it get there? What is it? There are no right or wrong answers here, you just need to get the ball rolling.
• Another way to begin this lesson would be to get the students to try to guess/estimate the number of gallons it takes for simple tasks to be performed. Examples, brushing your teeth, taking a shower, washing clothes, washing the dishes, etc..
• A third option would be to have a discussion of water and then have the students list all of the places they could put a chart at home so everyone could be involved in the study of water. This chart could later be put in their water journal, if that will be part of your curriculum unit.

6. Developmental Activities

• Week One: Introduction to water, physical and chemical properties of water and the water cycle. For those of you teaching in bilingual, i.e. Spanish/English, the Projecto Futuro has a limited number of activities already in Spanish. Check the students water usage charts.
• Week Two: Surface water, wetlands, groundwater, water usage
• Week Three: Water pollution, water treatment, water conservation. The water conservation may end up being a longer time period, or perhaps something that you would return to in the ensuing school year, depending on your political bent.

6. Culminating Activities

• Review and summation of the unit on water, going over the most important points that you stressed. Take time to review water usage charts, and to fill in the water journal, to hand in for a grade.
• A few suggestions would be to have students write a summary of their studies; write a short story that involves the use of water; draw a picture of some aspect of water; share your water usage charts, discussing ways to conserve.

6. Assessment

• Student portfolio
• Student conducted legislative research
• Student project
• Paper and pen test
• Teacher observations

6. Required Materials or Resources

• Appendix titled "Other Resources"

This unit is intended for use in a middle school as an overview of the topic of water in the Albuquerque area in the hopes that today’s students will begin to treasure and conserve our natural resources. The unit will begin with a general discussion of water, where it comes from, the water cycle, physical and chemical properties of water, and then move into the specifics of the source of Albuquerque’s water, usage, pollution, treatment, and conservation. I anticipate this curriculum unit to take approximately three (3) weeks.

It is hoped that the student will come to an awareness of, appreciation for, and realization that water:

• is a non-renewable natural resource that needs to be managed
• is essential for all life
• connects all Earth systems
• is a substance with specific physical and chemical properties
• a further bonus would be a greater understanding of the geological occurrences that shaped the Albuquerque/Middle Rio Grande Valley

Since assessment is a necessary part of teaching, I am going to suggest three methods that I have found successful in reaching the middle school student. The first one would be to have the student make a portfolio in which could be included a day-to-day journal, the activities, drawings of their own, (or sketches that you provide), and a summary of their study of water. The second method would be to have the students conduct research concerning current legislation regarding water, and have them follow the bill through to a vote. The student will list the pros and cons, contacting their legislatures, writing letters, in general, getting involved. This will hopefully show them that community action does make a difference. The third method of assessment would require some sort of a working project that would encompass other talents that a student may have that do not necessarily revolve around being a straight-A science student. I am thinking of the following: an art project; a poetry project; an essay; constructing a portion of the Rio Grande River bottom. These are projects that would allow the student to showcase their talents in a different manner and yet still be meaningful to the study of water. Of course, you can always rely on the paper and pencil test to assess memorized material, or rather how well the student retained those materials taught. The most reliable form of assessment would be your observations of the students during the activity periods; during brainstorming sessions and, during simple oral question-and-answer sessions. Since a teacher knows his/her students best, this may be the preferred method.

Pure water is clean, colorless, odorless, and tasteless. Water is life giving, and life threatening. Water covers about 70% of the Earth’s surface and makes up about 75% of our body weight; 90% of a cactus is water. Water is used to bathe in, to play in, cook with, and drink. We assume it will always be there. Will it? Where did it come from? How do we use or misuse it? Can we make more? Will there be enough for my children? These are some of the issues I hope to address in this unit.

Scientists now believe that Earth began as a solid by-product of the formation of the sun, a star, about four and a half (4.5) billion years ago. The sun left dust and gas which gravitated together to form the rest of our solar system. This is known as the nebular hypothesis of the origin of the solar system.₁ When all of the debris (meteorites) in Earth’s gravitational sphere coalesced, more or less, into the Earth and its moon, the Earth began to heat up. We know on the basis of the study of volcanic processes that the gases in magma came out of Earth’s mantle, forming the early planet’s atmosphere. These gases contained water vapor. As the Earth cooled, the water vapor condensed and fell to the surface of the Earth, accumulating in the depressions that eventually became the oceans. These oceans were probably formed after the early period of meteor bombardment ceased.

The ancients believed that matter was made up of only four elements: Earth, air, wind, and fire, and that everything in the world was composed of these four substances in some proportion or other. It wasn’t until 1781 that Joseph Priestly made water by combining two gases, hydrogen and oxygen. This was a discovery that changed the way the world viewed water, and other materials, ultimately resulting in the recognition that they consisted of elements, molecules, and compounds. It is this discovery that we shall begin to examine in this lesson.

We know that water was formed by a volcanic process releasing water vapor that then settled in depressions, known as oceans. Let us examine what water is.

To form a molecule of water, two atoms of hydrogen and an atom of oxygen fill their electron orbits by sharing electrons. Each hydrogen atom, with one electron spinning around its nucleus, needs one more electron to become stable. The larger oxygen atom, with six electrons in its outer shell, needs two more electrons to fill its orbit. When the three unstable atoms pool their electrons, the result is a stable molecule of water.

Each molecule of water (and billions of them can occur on a pinhead) contains a tiny amount of heat. This heat is enough to set the molecules in a state of constant motion. An increase of heat, as in summer weather, causes these water molecules to move faster; a decrease in heat, think winter weather, causes these molecules to slow down a bit. As long as these molecules maintain a constant motion, we have liquid water. If, however, some of these molecules break away, and escape, they change to water vapor (a gas). These molecules move freely and are not close-knit as molecules in a liquid. Ice, on the other hand, forms with a decrease in temperature, and a decrease in the energy of the molecules. These molecules vibrate but cannot move about freely. Instead, they form a strong attraction for one another and mold themselves into a definite crystalline shape through the formation of chemical bonds.

Water molecules are attracted to other substances besides other water molecules, or how else would blood flow through our bodies? How would plants get nutrients? This attraction of water molecules to other water molecules is called cohesion. The attraction of water molecules to other substances is called adhesion. We will look at these two properties more closely in an activity where you can actually see this occurring.

So, now that we know what water is, how does it get from the sky to the earth, and from the earth to the sky?

A little background information first. About 70% of Earth is covered by water, most of it in oceans. No new water is available. The water we use today is the same water that has been used for millions of years. That makes water a vital, non-renewable resource, that must be used over and over again. Water moves from one place to another in a large, complex system called the water cycle.

The sun heats up water in the oceans, causing water vapor to form and move, rising with air that is also warmed. As this air rises, it cools causing the vapor to change back to a liquid, which condenses into tiny droplets. These droplets are then carried by the atmosphere with the wind. They gather and grow into clouds, becoming larger and heavier, until they fall from the sky in the form of precipitation such as rain, hail, or snow. About 75% of this precipitation falls back into the oceans; the rest comes down on land.

The water falling on land drains into rivers and lakes, or sinks into the ground. When the ground is saturated by torrential downpours, or when snow melts rapidly, water becomes runoff. Runoff is water that flows across earth’s surface. Water that does not run off seeps into the Earth’s surface by the process of infiltration and percolation. Eventually, this groundwater flows underground, until it is discharged into creeks and streams that flow into small rivers. Small rivers join larger rivers flowing toward the sea. Thus, slowly, the cycle is completed by the evaporation of water back into the atmosphere, only to begin the cycle again. (Plants absorb about 6% of water from the soil, and release part of it through the surface of their leaves by a process called transpiration.)

Surprisingly, only about 25% of raindrops from clouds ever reach land. The rest fall back into the oceans, helping to maintain the balance between evaporation and condensation, and preventing the oceans from becoming saltier. This, then, is the water cycle, a never ending movement of water molecules travelling thousands of miles just to help keep balance on Earth!

So, the water cycle has neither a beginning nor an end. A drop of water will continually be in motion somewhere in this cycle. This one drop of water may, however, change its form or state, from a gas (water vapor, clouds), to a liquid (rain, rivers), to a solid (ice, ice caps, hail).

The Rio Grande River has its source in the mountains of Southern Colorado. In all, it travels over 2,000 miles from its source, Southern Colorado along the Continental Divide in the San Juan Mountains, to its mouth on the Gulf of Mexico, near Brownsville, Texas. A 100 mile stretch of the river between White Rock Canyon, just north of Cochiti Lake, and Socorro County in Central New Mexico is known as the Middle Rio Grande Valley. This broad valley is surrounded by mountains to the east; plateaus, and mesas to the west. This area is what we shall refer to as the Middle Rio Grande Valley, and the area we are most interested in for our studies. This Middle Rio Grande Valley encompasses four New Mexico counties (Sandoval, Bernalillo, Valencia, and Socorro) and six Indian Pueblos (Cochiti, Santo Domingo, San Felipe, Santa Ana, Sandia, and Isleta). Other land and facility managers would include the Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District, Bureau of Reclamation, Army Corps of Engineers, New Mexico Department of Game and Fish, US Fish and Wildlife Service, New Mexico State Parks and Recreation Division, City of Albuquerque, and private landowners.₂

The varied landforms of the middle Rio Grande have been created by a variety of natural geologic processes. White Rock Canyon, to the north, was formed by the waters of the Rio Grande eroding, or wearing down, a hard rock layer called basalt (a type of lava). Also to the north, the Jemez Mountains were formed by large ancient volcanic eruptions with many explosions of rock and ash. The Sandia Mountains, to the east, were formed by an uplifting of the earth’s crust caused by stretching deep in the earth’s crust. Albuquerque’s volcanoes, located on the West Mesa, are small volcanic craters with lava flows around their bases that flowed down into the Rio Grande Valley. This valley filled with gravel, sand, clay, and silt carried from higher ground by the force of the running water.

Historically, the river itself attracted settlement because of its life-giving resource, water. Earliest man, hunters and gatherers, settled by the river until resources such as wood and wildlife were depleted, and they moved on to more fertile ground. This type of land and water usage had little detrimental effect on the river. Spanish speaking peoples settled in the middle Rio Grande and have been here ever since, hunting and farming. In the early 1800’s, English speaking peoples came over the Santa Fe Trail, probably to trade with the Spanish and Native Americans. Some of these people settled in the valley, and again there was no real harm done to the land and water. It wasn’t until the late 1800’s, and the advent of the Industrial Revolution, that the river looked better than ever as a dumping ground for toxins. Think why this is important for us.

Looking at a picture of the Rio Grande River Valley, you can tell that water from precipitation (rain or snow) would naturally fall to the lowest point, which would be the river. In the case of a torrential downpour, this precipitation will seep into the ground eventually finding its way to the aquifer. An aquifer is any underground rock formation that will yield water to a well or spring. While some aquifers are able to store more water than others, this is solely dependent on the structure and qualities of the rock. For instance, porous, fractured, or loosely cemented rock is more sponge-like then hard rock with few fractures and therefore will hold more water. The aquifer is our source of drinking water, so it’s not difficult to see why we do not want to dump toxins in our sole source of water! As a rule, our water supply is of such good natural chemical quality that very little treatment is necessary for safe usage.

New Mexico has very little surface water. Surface water is water above the land. New Mexico is the third driest state in the United States. Because of our drier, warmer climate, only about 3% of the precipitation that falls over New Mexico is used by us; the other 97% is evaporated.₃ This should make you think about surface water because in 3 to 4 years, the city of Albuquerque is going to begin using surface water for drinking water. Every drop of this water will have to be treated and pumped, making for very expensive water. Surface water is also important for the survival of plants and animals that populate the wetlands. Wetlands are areas adjacent to streams and rivers. They are rich in their soil type, providing food and shelter for a variety of plants and animals that are already on the verge of extinction due to the over use of irrigation canals and dams. Wetlands can help minimize the effects of flooding because they are able to absorb and hold more water. They also act as filters for certain pollutants.

Groundwater is any water at or below the water table. The water table is the uppermost extent of groundwater. If you think of a glass of water being filled to the very top, that very top is the water table; anything under the water table could be considered groundwater. Groundwater moves very slowly, remember it is held in spaces within rock and soil. Because groundwater moves so slowly, pollutants are not easily removed, and so may stay in the water for years. Since Albuquerque uses, at present, only groundwater, we must be very careful to not pollute this water because we do not have another source of water, and cannot survive without water.

Run through a typical day at your house and try to list all of the times you use water and why. You flush the toilet, shower, brush your teeth, drink, wash clothes and dishes, feed pets, water the lawn, and a host of other activities that include the use of water, never mind how many times a day you wash your hands. Often, these same activities are repeated by other family members. Consider that the average shower uses 5 gallons per minute! Multiply the length of your shower by the number of people in your household and you will have an idea of how we assume that there will always be enough water for our usage. The city of Albuquerque estimates that a family of four cooking three meals, washing dishes, bathing and flushing the toilet will use about 180-250 gallon of water a day. Typically, the summer months of June, July, August, and to a lesser extent, September, are peak water usage months. The reason is that students are out of school for the summer, home all day, using water; swimming pools are being filled up; hot, sweaty bodies mean more showers; more showers mean more clothes to wash. It is a never-ending cycle.

Household use of water is only one type of water usage. Because New Mexico has a large agricultural community, a large proportion of our available water is used for irrigation. We are all familiar with the acequias, and ditch irrigation. Some other agricultural uses for water would include livestock, fish and wildlife, recreation, and, while not agricultural, electrical power generation is an enormous user of water.

The city of Albuquerque owns, operates, and maintains 92 wells that are anywhere from 400’ deep to 1500’ deep.₄ They pump water (groundwater ) from the wells into a series of reservoirs until it is needed. From the reservoirs, water then is pumped to treatment plants where dirt or sediment is removed and, usually, chlorine is added to kill bacteria, then flouride is added to help keep our teeth healthy. After treatment, the water is ready to be pumped to homes and businesses around the city by a series of underground pipes; so that when you turn on your tap, you have water.

Pollution and contamination are used interchangeably to indicate that there has been a change in the quality of our water, usually from man made sources. As a rule, we do not give a second thought to pollution as we carry on our household chores, yet many of the activities associated with running a household involve the use of pollutants. These pollutants are known as HHW for household hazardous wastes. Some examples of these HHW’s are paint left in the bottom of the can, paint thinner, floor polish, mothballs, used motor oil, and pesticides, almost all drain uncloggers, oven cleaner, even bleach. Some of these products can be disposed of without harming the environment, by simply flushing them down the drain with plenty of water.

Households with septic tanks, and they are in the majority in New Mexico, represent a real threat to water quality. In a standard septic tank system, liquid wastes from drains and toilets flow into a large underground storage tank. Oils will float to the top, while solids will settle to the bottom of the tank. Over time a series of perforated pipes carries this waste from the tank to a large drainfield. Water may slowly seep downward from the perforated pipes into the soil, or evaporate from the soil. Eventually, this water reaches the groundwater. One solution is, of course, to have your septic tank pumped out yearly. Other reasons for septic tank pollution problems could stem from the fact that there are simply too many tanks too close together in a single neighborhood. These drainfields need space to operate correctly. A shallow water table, like those found in the valley communities of the Rio Grande River, will cause liquid wastes to reach the ground water before the soil has had a chance to properly filter these wastes. Of course, any household hazardous waste poured down the drain has the probability of becoming a contaminant.

We generally think of agricultural activities as being fairly benign, but they do have the potential to pollute and degrade water quality in several ways. First, when irrigation water evaporates from fields, many naturally occurring minerals and salts may remain. Over time the build-up may reach hazardous levels and plants may die. Of course, we are all aware of the pollution associated with animal waste. These wastes can, with flooding or enough precipitation, seep into the ground water leading to high levels of toxins in the water. Lastly, pesticides and fertilizers that are used to promote crop growth can cause water pollution when rainwater and irrigation water carry these substances into surface streams.

Mining can be another source of water pollution as large slag heaps have the potential to leach toxins into the ground given enough precipitation. Coal and uranium have both been mined in the Middle Rio Grande area, but none of these mines is in operation at this date.

Logging is another source of water pollution in the Middle Rio Grande. Logging has the additional distinction of disturbing the land, removing the protective canopy of trees leaving the soil prone to erosion. This soil, sand, clay, silt, and minerals wash from the exposed areas of newly logged trees into streams and rivers, harming fish, and causing the streams and reservoirs to be dredged.

We would be remiss if we did not mention the human element in the area of water pollution. In this desert climate, any body of water has an immediate appeal for recreational usage. However, the very things that we love, swimming, boating, fishing, camping, can be potentially damaging to water quality. While we are enjoying the great outdoors, we need to be mindful that we are treading on some other critter’s home and environment. We need to remember to contain litter; watch where we are walking and hiking; do all washing away from streams and rivers; don’t litter; and, follow proper sanitation procedures.

One enormous source of pollution in the past has been underground storage tanks, such as those used at gasoline stations. After a certain amount of time, the tanks develop weaknesses along seam lines, and begin to leak. If, again, enough precipitation falls, it will carry the leakage to the underground waters and pollution occurs. In the past several years gas stations have been required to have their underground storage tanks inspected and replaced if they were found to be leaking. This turned out to be a very costly project for the owners, but necessary to stay in business.

Albuquerque has a community wastewater treatment system for those households on the sewer system. This wastewater treatment plant is located on Second Street just south of Rio Bravo. Just as freshwater gets to homes in the city by a series of wells, pumps, reservoirs and more pumps and pipes to your home, so the process is reversed when carrying wastewater away from your home. Used water is carried by a series of pipes towards the treatment plant. When this water arrives at the plant, it passes through a series of bar screens that catch and remove large solids. This trash is collected and taken to the landfill for disposal. Next, the wastewater moves to the grit channel where gravel, sand, and even coffee grounds settle to the bottom and, again are removed for disposal. The wastewater then slows into a settling tank. As water flows into this tank, much like a septic system, heavy particles settle to the bottom and oil floats up to the top. Both the top and bottom are removed leaving the water relatively free of large particles and ready for the secondary treatment.

Secondary treatment of wastewater relies heavily on biological and chemical processes to clean the water. In an aeration basin, air is pumped into the water. This extra oxygen promotes the growth of microorganisms, which are naturally occurring in used water, that eat most of the remaining waste material in the water. The wastewater then flows into a final clarification tank where the now old and fat microorganisms fall to the bottom and are removed. This water is basically clean, now. The last step is to add a small amount of chlorine to the water for disinfection. This process takes about 24 hours, and then the water is ready to flow into the Rio Grande. Albuquerque treats about 50 million gallons of water this way every day.₅ Of course water samples are taken at every step of this process to assure the population of clean, safe, water.

Now you have seen that supplying water to households and removing household wastes, while mostly taken for granted is not a simple matter. We are fortunate to have indoor plumbing and water that comes into your house via the tap (and miles of pipe). Click on www.epa.gov/OGWDW/kids/treat.html₆ for more information.

The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 is the federal law that provides for the regulation of drinking water quality. The State of New Mexico adheres to these federal regulations, also, and in some cases their ordinances are much more stringent than federal law. Thus far, Albuquerque’s public water system has maintained a perfect record in meeting the requirements of these laws. This has been no easy task considering that the city of Albuquerque has and maintains 2,400 miles of water pipeline and 10,500 fire hydrants, plus 92 wells that pump somewhere around 110 million gallons of water per day, reservoirs, pumping stations, waste water treatment plants, and landfills. A phone call to the water department will yield much information!

This all sounds like very serious business, and it is, but there are ways you can help out. People always think that they are pretty helpless when it comes to government regulated agencies, but I think you will find that community action pays off, and you can do it. You already know from our studies where your water comes from, how much there is of it, and certainly where the water goes after you use it. You can begin your community action by contacting the Albuquerque Water Department, ask them how you can map your watershed. They may have maps and other information that they will be willing to send to you, or perhaps you could arrange to have a parent/guardian pick them up for you. We have learned that we have private wells and also public utility system that delivers water to our homes and businesses. Since you get your drinking water from the local watershed, it is important to understand the source of your drinking water.

Once you have your watershed mapped out, you need to draw a map of your neighborhood, include the locations of the wells and reservoirs nearest you. Mark the wastewater treatment plant nearest you. Look at the topography; is that treatment plant location downhill? Remember that water will have a gravitational pull to a low point.

Decide where your greatest area of interest is, and make a plan to enlist your friends and neighbors in your effort to educate about water. You should be asking these people why water conservation is necessary. Are you interested in water quality in our environment? Drinking water quality? Or are you interested in educating your friends and neighbors about water? Enlist the help of an expert; talk it up at a public meeting. If you have your facts straight, everyone will sit up and listen. And above all, practice what you preach. Conserve.

We haven’t discussed water rights in New Mexico, and this can be a very touchy subject as those of you who have property in southern New Mexico, or Mexico, already know. A water right allows a person, group, or community to use a specified amount of water. This right does not imply ownership of the water. The history of water rights, goes back to settlement and land ownership. It used to be that if you owned land adjoining a water source, then you had a right to use that water however you saw fit. Today, landowners must prove that their use is reasonable, and also that landowners down stream have water to use.

This does not pose a problem east of the Mississippi where rainfall is plentiful, but in the western states, people have been known to kill over water rights. While that is not the prevalent attitude today, hard feelings exist over water usage. We do have a Prior Appropriation Doctrine regulating water in the West. It basically states, "first come, first served." As technology has advanced, so has the need for water, especially for hydroelectric generation plants, industries, and there is a growing concern for that rapidly expanding recreation industry.

It is a fervent hope that you have learned a great deal about water as a natural resource, and that you will be involved in community issues involving water uses. Your entire environment will undergo drastic change without sufficient water resources, and I hope that this is understood now. I hope you will be good caretakers of the Earth.

Endnotes

1. Environmental Geology, An Earth System Approach, Dorothy Merritts, Andrew De Wet, Kirsten Menking, W.H. Freeman and Company, 1997.
2. Water Resources of the Middle Rio Grande Area, Prepared by the Middle Rio Grande Council of Governments of New Mexico, 1991.
3. Albuquerque Public Works Department, Water Division.
4. Albuquerque Public Works Department, Water Division.
5. Albuquerque Public Works Department, Water Division.
6. http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/kids/treat.html, May, 1999

Acequias. Irrigation channels carrying water to farms, fields, and neighborhoods.
Adhesion. The attraction of water molecules to other materials as a result of hydrogen bonding.
Aquifer. An underground bed of saturated soil or rock that yields significant quantities of water.
Capillary action. The means by which water is drown through tiny spaces in a material, such as soil, through the processes of adhesion and cohesion.
Cohesion. The attraction of water molecules to each other as a result of hydrogen bonding.
Condensation. The process by which a vapor becomes a liquid; the opposite of evaporation.
Conservation. The use of water-saving methods to reduce the amount of water needed for homes, lawns, farming, and industry, and thus increasing water supplies for optimum benefits.
Contaminant. Any substance that when added to water (of another substance) makes it impure and unfit for consumption or use.
Depletion. The loss of water from surface water reservoirs or ground water aquifers at a rate greater than that of recharge.
Direct water uses. Uses of water that are apparent (e.g., washing, cooking, bathing).
Discharge. An outflow of water from a stream, pipe, ground water system, watershed.
Downstream. In the direction of a stream’s current; in relation to water rights, refers to water used or locations that are affected by upstream uses or locations.
Floodplain. Any normally dry land area that is susceptible to being inundated by water from any natural source; usually lowland adjacent to a stream or lake.
Fresh water. Water with less than 0.5 parts per thousand dissolved salts.
Ground water. Water found in spaces between soil particles underground (located in the zone of saturation).
Hydrology. The study of Earth’s waters, including water’s properties, circulation, principles, and distribution.
Impermeable layer. A layer of material, like clay, in an aquifer through which water does not pass.
Indirect water uses. Uses of water that are not immediately apparent to the consumer. An example would be driving a car because water was used in the production process of steel and other parts of the vehicle
Irrigation. The controlled application of water to cropland, hay fields, and/or pasture to supplement that supplied by nature.
Municipal water system. A network of pipes, pumps, and storage and treatment designed to deliver potable water to homes, schools, businesses, and facilities to other users in a city or town and to remove and treat waste materials.
Nonpoint source pollution. Widespread overland runoff containing pollutants; the contamination does not originate from one specific location, and pollution discharges over a wide land area.
Permeable. Capable of transmitting water (e.g., porous rock, sediment, or soil).
Plume. A continuous emission from a point source of contamination that has a starting point and a noticeable pathway.
Point source pollution. Pollutants discharged from any identifiable point, including pipes, ditches, channels, sewers, tunnels, and containers of various types.
Pollution. An alteration in the character or quality of the environment, or any of its components, that renders it less suited for certain uses. The alteration of the physical, chemical, or biological properties of water by the introduction of any substance that renders the water harmful to use.
Precipitation. Water falling, in a liquid or solid state, from the atmosphere to Earth.
Respiration. The act or process by which an organism exchanges gases with its environment; in animals with lungs, the process of inhaling and exhaling, or breathing. Cellular respiration involves the release of energy from food through chemical reactions.
Riparian areas. Land areas directly influenced by a body of water, usually have visible vegetation or other physical characteristics showing this water influence. Stream banks, lake borders, and marshes are typical riparian areas.
Runoff. Precipitation that flows overland to surface streams, rivers, and lakes.
Sediment. Fragmented organic or inorganic material derived from the weathering of soil, alluvial, and rock materials; removed by erosion and transported by water, wind, ice, and gravity.
Solid. The state of water in which molecules have limited movement.
Storm drain. Constructed opening in a road system through which runoff from the road surface flown into an underground sewer.
Stream. Any body of running water moving under gravity’s influence through clearly defined natural channels to progressively lower levels.
Surface tension. The attraction among water molecules at the surface of a liquid; creates a skin-like barrier between air and underlying molecules.
Surface water. Water above the surface of the land, including lakes, rivers, streams, ponds, floodwater, and runoff.
Transpiration. The process by which water absorbed by plants (usually through the roots) is evaporated into the atmosphere from the plant surface (principally
from the leaves).
Wastewater. Water that contains unwanted materials from homes, businesses, and industries; a mixture of water and dissolved or suspended substances.
Wastewater treatment. Any of the mechanical or chemical processes used to modify the quality of wastewater in order to make it more compatible or accept-able to humans and the environment.
Water. An odorless, tasteless, colorless liquid made up of a combination of hydrogen and oxygen. Water forms streams, lakes, and seas, and is a major constituent of all living things.
Water cycle. The path water takes through its various states – vapor, liquid, solid, as it moves throughout Earth’s systems.
Water molecule. The smallest unit of water, consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
Water related issue. An environmental problem involving water that is complicated by the disagreement of two or more parties over the cause, effect, and/or resolution of the problem.
Water resource management. The decision making, manipulative, and non-manipulative processes by which water is protected, allocated, or developed.
Water right. A legal right to use a specified amount of water for beneficial purposes.
Watershed. The land area from which surface runoff drains into a stream, channel, lake, reservoir, or other body of water.
Water table. Indicates the level below which soil and rock are saturated with water.
Water treatment plants. Facilities that treat water to remove contaminants so that it can be safely used.

Cole, Joanna, The Magic School Bus at the Waterworks, Scholastic, 1987. Ms. Fizzle takes her students on a fieldtrip to the waterworks.

Gunston, Bill, Water, Silver, Burdett & Ginn, Inc., 1982. Water experiments. Talks about water.

Locker, Thomas, Where the River Begins, Dial Books, 1984. Two young boys go on a camping trip to find source of the river that flows by their house.

Schmid, Eleonore, The Water’s Journey, North-South Books, 1990. Explains the water cycle.

Albuquerque’s Environmental Story: Toward a Sustainable Community, Hy and Joan Rosner, Cottonwood Printing Company, 1996.
General information on Albuquerque’s growth and environment. Includes some activities.

Arid Lands, Sacred Waters, Student Activity Packet, Marne Potter, Caitlyn Howell, New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science, U.S. Geological Survey, and U.S.D.A. Forest Service, 1992.
Discusses the importance of the Rio Grande River for a sustainable environment. Includes some activities.

Ecology: Concepts and Applications, Manuel C. Molles, Jr., McGraw-Hill, 1999.
Covers a broad range of ecology topics.

Environmental Geology, An Earth System Science Approach, Dorothy Merrits, Andrew DeWet, Kirsten Menking, W.H. Freeman and Company, 1997.
A unique perspective of the earth as a total system, easy to read.

Give Water a Hand, Community Site Action Guide, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation. Community action guide, complete with activities.

Project WET, Curriculum and Activity Guide, by the Watercourse at Montana State University and the Council for Environmental Education, Houston, Texas, 1996.
A wonderful book full of interesting activities laid out for the educator, includes additional resources, goals, assessments.

Water Resources of the Middle Rio Grande Area, prepared by Middle Rio Grande Council of Governments of New Mexico, 1991.
Easy to understand discussion of the Rio Grande River and its environs.

Geological Survey Department of the Interior
Water Resources Division
4501 Indian School Road NE
Ste. 200
Albuquerque, NM 87110-3929                      262-5300

Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District
1931 Second Street SW
Albuquerque, NM 87102 247-0234
Natural Resources Conservation Service
US Department of Agriculture
6200 Jefferson NE
Albuquerque, NM 87109                              761-4400

NM Department of Game and Fish
Albuquerque Area Office
3841 Midway Place
Albuquerque, NM 87109                              841-8881

NM Museum of Natural History and Science
1801 Mountain Road NW                            841-2800 for information
Albuquerque NM 87104                              841-2872 to book school tours
                                                                   281-5259

Sandia Mountain National History Center
Public Works Department Water Resources Management
City of Albuquerque
PO Box 1293
Albuquerque NM 87103                              768-3634

Environmental Department
State of New Mexico
PO Box 26110
Santa Fe, NM 87502                                  1-800-219-6157
                                                                  841-9450 in Albuquerque
                                                                  Drinking Water 505-827-7536
                                                                  Ground Water Quality 505-827-2918
                                                                  Surface Water Quality 505-827-0187
                                                                  Water and Waste Management 505-827-2834

Internet
http://www.usgs.gov/
www.cnie.org
http://water.usgs.gov/droplet
http://usgs.gov/education
http://water.usgs.gov/public/wateruse
http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/kids/treat.html

Videos
Desert Waters, can be ordered from:
        Bryan Swain
        WERC
        NM State University
        PO Box 30001
        Las Cruces, NM 88003-8001          505-646-2038

Before the Well Runs Dry, can be ordered from:
Public Works Department
City of Albuquerque
PO Box 1293
Albuquerque, NM 87103                          768-3634

Introduction
Narrative:
Soils
Soil Properties
Soil Horizons
Soil Contaminants
Conclusion
Lesson Plan #1: Introducing the Soils Study Unit
Lesson Plan #2: Student Field Trips to Describe and Sample Soils on Sight
Lesson Plan #3: Testing Soil Texture
Lesson Plan #4: Testing Soil Particle Size Distribution
Lesson Plan #5: Water Movement in Soils: Video, Questions, and Experimentation
Lesson Plan #6: Examining Environmental Influences on Soil Formation
Lesson Plan #7: Testing Properties of Colloids in Soil Environment
Lesson Plan #8: Testing Soil Acidity
Lesson Plan #9: Examining Soil Salinity
Lesson Plan #10: Surveying the South Valley Community for Examples of Soil
Contamination
Lesson Plan #11: Mapping and Completing Soil Survey Reports
Lesson Plan #12: Analyzing an Unknown Soil Sample (Assessment)
Notes
Bibliography
Teacher’s Reference List
Student Reading List
Teacher’s Material List
Appendix A: The Geological Framework of the Albuquerque Basin of New Mexico
Appendix B: The Ecological Framework of the Albuquerque Basin of New Mexico

The early Hispanic families recognized the richness of the Rio Grande River floodplain soils, and the grazing potential of the flanking terraces. They partitioned the best valley lands as large land grants. Isleta Boulevard, a main north-south thoroughfare in the South Valley, is part of the old Camino Real, along which Juan de Onate traveled in 1598, first exploring the area for Spain. Land use and modern settlements in the South Valley today still reflect the historic land grants established by Hispanic families in the 1690-1700’s, in neighborhoods such as Atrisco, Pajarito, and Los Padillas.

The South Valley is a mix today of denser urban population interspersed with rural farms and ranchos. Alfalfa, truck farm vegetables, and fruit orchards, as well as small animal enclosures, compete not only with older neighborhoods and strip mall shopping areas, but with industries, wastewater treatment plants, and new tract housing as well. Much of the South Valley is unincorporated and outside Albuquerque city limits, thus escaping the city zoning laws. Many residents have separate well water and septic systems.

The objective of this nine weeks soil contamination curriculum unit is to enable high school geology students who live in the South Valley to examine, describe and test properties of soils from the South Valley area. Students will also correlate the sources of soil contamination in the South Valley with soil properties. The students will commence this curriculum unit after having studied basic geological principles, the geology of New Mexico, and an introductory chapter on soil properties and soil formation.

Planned activities include field trips to three sites, (the Rio Grande River floodplain, an irrigated field, and the Southwest Mesa terrace), to examine soil properties in the field, measure and describe a soil horizon, and take samples from each site to analyze in laboratory experiments. Students will work in teams of 3 to 4 each, both in the field and in the classroom. Experiments will include analyzing the soil samples for soil texture, particle size distribution, water movement in soils, environmental influences in soil formation, properties of colloids in soil environment, soil acidity, and soil degradation by salinity and sodicity. As students perform the various experiments, they will coordinate their findings with respective area neighborhood surveys of potential and actual contamination sources. As assessment, students will test an unknown soil sample for several properties and also take an essay test based upon their laboratory findings.

Soils provide both nutrients for plant growth and a livable environment for various human activities, such as farming, ranching, building, recreation, and industry. In the Albuquerque Basin, soils form an extensive sand and gravel aquifer, of the Santa Fe Group, providing the water for the entire basin community. Soils also determine the type of vegetative cover, from the southern grasslands, the large Bosque cottonwoods, to the pinyon-juniper covered slopes of the Sandia Mountains pediment.

Soils are influenced by climate, physical and chemical weathering, topography, and ecological and geological settings. Fertile soils, rich with organic matter, can support abundant plant life. Land denuded of soils cannot. Altogether soils form the pedosphere, a layer of disaggregated and decomposed rock debris and organic matter at the surface of the earth.¹

Soils form by different processes: erosion, deposition, organic matter decomposition, weathering, and acidification. Erosion can occur by the action of water, ice, or wind. Physical weathering, to produce rock fragments, can include exfoliation jointing, thermal expansion, biological disintegration associated with plant growth and worm activity, and frost weathering. ² Chemical weathering also contributes greatly to soil formation. Water, other chemical ions, and oxygen react with parent rock material and primary and secondary minerals already in soils to further decompose soils. Water, H₂O, combining with atmospheric carbon dioxide gas, CO₂, forms carbonic acid, H₂CO₃, within soils. This carbonic acid in turn reacts with limestone, calcium carbonate, CaCO₃, dissolving the rock into smaller fragments and forming calcite. Calcite, or caliche, is a common component of arid region soils.

Decaying organic matter also forms acids in soils. Atmospheric nitric and sulfuric gases combine with water to form acids, too, which further decompose soils. Another form of chemical weathering is oxidation. Atmospheric oxygen combines with elements in soils such as iron, Fe, to form iron oxides, FeO, and Fe₂O₃, the characteristic reddish color in many soils. Finally, certain minerals are more soluble than others in soils, and can be removed by water percolating through soils. Potassium, K, calcium, Ca, magnesium, Mg, and sodium, Na, are easily removed by water, while such elements or compounds as aluminum, Al, iron, Fe, and silica, Si, will remain.³

Soils form by the interaction of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. The lithosphere contributes parent rock material. The complex but interesting geological framework of New Mexico has contributed a wide variety of parent rock material to the Albuquerque Basin soils. (Appendix A). The hydrosphere, in the forms of precipitation, stream and river flow, snow, and ice further breaks down rock fragments and aid in transport of soils and sediments. The atmosphere contributes gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide, which combine with water to react chemically within soils. The biosphere contributes decaying plant material and the activities of organisms burrowing through soils.⁴ (Appendix B)

Eminent soil scientist Hans Jenny developed the study of soils as a valid scientific discipline; he derived a soil equation, CLORPT. CL is for climate; O is for organism; R is for relief (slope or topography); P is for parent material; and T is for time.⁵

"Knowing these variables, "he asserted," one should be able to predict the vegetable, animal, soil, and other properties of the ecosystem in question."⁶

Soils can be identified and described by examining their physical, organic, chemical, and water related properties. Soils are also characterized by their layered position at a site and their topography. Soil physical properties include the amount of pore space between soil grains, the structure (or aggregation), color, compaction, density and strength, presence of cracks or crusts, resistance to penetration, permeability and porosity, and temperature and texture. Organic properties include odor, presence of decomposing organic matter, content and type of organisms present, and type of vegetative cover. Chemical properties include acidity or alkalinity, salinity or sodicity. Soil composition affects, in turn, the amount of water that can infiltrate, the water holding capacity, and the water content. Another important consideration is where soils occur geographically, and at what level in a horizon.⁷

When soils develop in place, they form layers, or horizons, each with its own distinctive characteristics. Soil horizons form a vertical arrangement called a soil profile. Different climates, parent rock material, topography, and vegetative cover can contribute to varying soil profiles. The uppermost soil horizon is the O Horizon, composed of decaying organic matter, which forms a humus layer, black, brown or tan in color. Underlying the O Horizon is the A Horizon, composed of mineral materials, clays, silts, sands, and some organic materials. The A Horizon can, like the O, show evidence of the activity of organisms, for example burrowing. The B Horizon underlies the A Horizon; it contains clays, leached minerals, and elements or compounds, such as aluminum, iron, and silica. Color changes, in the form of banding, can occur in this horizon. Certain desert soils develop calcium carbonate bands in the B Horizon. Finally, the lowermost C Horizon may or may not lie on bedrock; it usually has weathered rock material from the underlying bedrock, or can be composed of materials such as sand or gravel alluvium. ⁸

The U.S. Department of Agriculture has devised a soil classification system of 12 soil orders, with further subdivisions of suborders, great groups, subgroups, families, series and types. These soil orders reflect variations in temperature, precipitation, topography, horizon thickness, and clay content. Soil maps, moreover, reflecting these orders, are available from Soil Conservation Services. The soil orders include Alfisols, Andisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Histosols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, Oxisols, Spodosols, Ultisols, and Vertisols. In the Southwestern United States, Aridisols and Mollisols are more common. ⁹

Most soils of the Albuquerque Basin can be characterized as desert soils with calcic horizons and very little or no O (organic) Horizon. They are often referred to as caliche soils. Some soils in the Albuquerque Basin look like cake layers, with clay rich, reddish horizons above white calcic horizons.

"These clay rich layers are called argillic horizons, formed over long periods of time when clay particles, suspended in water, are carried downward into the soil and accumulate."¹⁰

Argillic horizons can be a dusty brick red, produced by the oxidation of iron bearing minerals, such as biotite and hornblende, which are derived from igneous or metamorphic rocks.¹¹

Soil Contaminants

Soils respond differently to various contaminants, depending upon type of soil composition, pore space, acidity or alkalinity, available water flow, and contaminant concentration levels, source and type. Coarser sandy soils have a lower water retention rate than fine textured soils with more humus and /or clay; therefore contaminants will percolate much more quickly through coarse soils than finer soils. An example would be the action of a common pesticide contaminant atrazine:

"The fate of the pesticide atrazine applied to soil, is of primary environmental concern and is linked to the organic content of soil. Sorption of atrazine by soil components, primarily organic matter, reduces its solution concentration, and lessens potential leaching hazards."¹²

Clays, or colloids, because they have so much surface area and are negatively charged at their outer particle perimeters, can attract and swell to many hundred times their original particle size with water contaminated with toxic metallic ions, such as lead, cadmium, chromium, or mercury. Clays in soils also form a barrier and can trap hydrocarbon contaminants, such as gasoline or cleaning solvents. ¹³

Atmospheric pollutant gases, such as nitrogen dioxide, NO₂, sulfur dioxide, SO₂, or excess carbon dioxide can go into solution with water and percolate through soils, increasing soil acidity. Soil acidity, in turn, can increase absorption of other elements and compounds.

Human activity can negatively impact the soil environment in a number of ways:

depletion of soil nutrients, such as nitrogen by planting the same crops and not rotating crops; dumping wastes illegally; accelerating erosion by poor construction planning; clearing soil surfaces of covering vegetation; compacting and covering soils with concrete, asphalt, or other impervious cover; fostering organic matter loss by not mulching; and accelerating acidification of soils. ¹⁴

Finally, agriculture activity frequently leads to soil contamination, in the use of excess fertilizers or improper disposal of animal wastes; both activities contribute phosphorus and excess nitrates to soils. Such contamination eventually leaches through soils and can lead to eutrophication of streams, ponds, lakes, and rivers.

The South Valley of the Albuquerque Basin has numerous example of soil contamination, from leaking underground gasoline tanks, leaking private septic systems, excess fertilizer use, illegal dumping, industrial pollution, and animal waste contamination. For example, creosote and oil, used in the treatment of wood products, was removed as contaminated oil sludge from an EPA Superfund site. There was concern that contamination from the 6" of sludge, a very complex mixture of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and 1,100 cubic yards in volume, would infiltrate the groundwater supply in the upper Santa Fe aquifer.¹⁵

The Natural Resource Conservation Service defines soil quality as

"…the capacity of soils to function. Soil will function to filter the water that falls on it and the air that flows through it, while supporting the biological ecosystems that function within and on it. When we degrade soils, the capacity to function is diminished."¹⁶

"A soil is not a pile of dirt. It is a transformer, a body that organizes raw materials into tissues. These are the tissues that become mother to all organic life."¹⁷

In the Albuquerque Basin, soils, not only provide still fertile farmland, landfills, and building sites, but also filter and contain the basin's water supply in the Santa Fe Aquifer.

"Virtually all fresh water falls on soil and travels over, through, evaporates from, is stored in, or interacts with soil to drive several chemical and biological processes."¹⁸

Human activity can impact soils negatively through urban and agricultural runoff, municipal and industrial discharge, river overflow, feedlot wastes, illegal dumping, heavy fertilizer use, and removal of vegetative cover. Once damaged, it is difficult for soils to recover.

"In some parts of the world today, rates of erosion due to human activity are 18 to 100 times greater than the natural rate of soil renewal. In the 1980's, the World Watch Institute, a research group in Washington D C, projected a 32% decline in the amount of topsoil per person between 1984 and 2000." ¹⁹

Soil formation, moreover, is a process which requires time. Only about 0.02-0.11mm of soil forms per year; soils to a depth of several meters requires 10,000-50,000 years.²⁰

This soils curriculum unit should enable students to examine soil properties and soil contamination in an investigative and experimental approach. This curriculum unit also addresses the need to teach and assess several New Mexico State geology and environmental science core curriculum standards not otherwise met in traditional high school science classes.

Objective: Students will determine the soil properties to be measured and review which field techniques to use.

Introduction:

Teacher introduces the Soils Unit with a demonstration prior to lecture and discussion. Teacher assembles three different soil samples in funnels on ring stands, one each of humus, sandy loam, and a soil with high clay content, with beakers underneath each funnel of each ring stand. Teacher asks students to help in the demonstration, as each person pours the same small amount of blue colored water, 25mL, into each funnel.

Teacher asks students to predict which soil will hold the most liquid, and which soil might retain the most color. Teacher asks students why and how soils can trap liquids.

Teacher then lectures briefly on soil properties, writing key concepts on the chalkboard or on an overhead. Teacher explains that observing soils in the field is like detective work and qualitative in nature. Teacher reviews required field kits with students, obtains written permission slips, and assigns student teams of 3-4 each, prior to trip. Field kit for each student team will include the following:

• Per student: field notebook, pens, ruler, water bottle, hat, sunscreen, and sensible shoes
• Per team: small shovel, small plastic bottle for 1M Hydrochloric acid, hand lens, and soil thermometer, 4-6 plastic collecting bags for samples.
• Per class: Munsell color chart and soil maps

Objective: Students will evaluate soil properties in the field using a number of measuring parameters and criteria. Students will also determine and use the appropriate measuring device for each soil property. Students will record soil property information in an orderly and systematic manner in their field notebooks.

Estimated Class Time: Three separate field trips to three different sites, of ½ day each, with each geology class.

Introduction:

Teacher will guide geology students, one class at a time, on each field trip of ½ day duration, to three different sites on three different days:

• Field Trip #1: Rio Grande River Bosque Floodplain
• Field Trip #2: South Valley Irrigated Field
• Field Trip #3: Southwest Mesa

At each site, student teams will measure, describe, and evaluate soil properties according to the following list and descriptions of soil properties, and record information in their field notebooks:

Soil Properties, Field Notes:

Soil Aeration: Use your hand lens to check soil for the presence and size of pore spaces.

Soil Aggregation (Structure): What type of soil grains can you see in your sample? Are they sand, silt, or clay sized? Use your grain size chart as a guide.²¹ Record what type of minerals you see as well. Describe the structure of the soil grains according to the following structure criteria:

• Granular: cubical, pea or smaller sized
• Blocky: cubic, larger than granular with sharp or rounded edges
• Prismatic: columnar shaped
• Platy: flat shaped
• Single grained: as in loose sands
• Massive: powdery, or irregularly shaped

Color: Use the Munsell color chart, as demonstrated by the teacher, to compare the soil sample and record color.

Cracks and Crusting: Note and describe the presence of any cracks in soil surface, or crusting, compact, hard or a brittle surface. Do you see any dry spots in the soil, where the vegetation appears wilted?

Horizon: Record from which horizon level the soil you are sampling came from. Do you see any distinct layers within any horizon? Describe and measure in centimeters the height of each horizon.

Odor: Does the soil sample have any noticeable odor? Smell a freshly exposed sample and describe. Odors can be evidence of volatile organic compounds, contamination, rotting vegetation, microbe activity, pesticides, ammonia, and/or petroleum products. Indicate possible source of odor.

Organic Matter: Humus is black, brown to tan in color and is composed of decomposing vegetation. Describe the color carefully. Do you see any evidence of organisms? Any roots or rootlets?

Porosity: Use your hand lens to examine soil for abundance and relative size of pore spaces between soil grains. Describe and record.

Salinity: Do you detect the presence of any white or gray crusty deposits in the soil? Take a fresh soil sample and drop 3-4 drops of Hydrochloric acid onto the sample. If it fizzes, then calcium carbonate,CaCO₃, is present.

Soil Sample Position: Describe the general topographical location of your sample. (i.e. floodplain, slope, terrace, arroyo, etc.)

Temperature: Using the soil thermometer, take the temperature of the soil where you took your samples for other testing and record in degrees Celsius.

Texture: In order to determine the relative percentage of sand, silt, or clay in your soil, perform the following field test:

• Moisten a golf ball sized ball of soil to a putty consistency.
• Work the soil between thumb and forefinger, flattening it into a ribbon.
• Allow ribbon to hang.
• If ribbon is less than 1", there is very little clay.
• If ribbon is between 1-2.5", there is a moderate amount of clay.
• If ribbon is more than 2", there is a lot of clay.

Thatch and Vegetative cover: Describe the presence or absence of any thatch, nondecomposed, or partially decomposed layer of organic matter. Check for the presence of any insects or rodents, fungi, algae, or mold. Describe the type, quality and abundance of any plants that your soil supports. Use your guides to help you identify plant species.

Water Content: How well does your sample hold water? Squeeze a small, flattened lump of soil in your hand and knead it with your finger. Evaluate its wetness according to the following:

• Excessively wet: soil will flow together and release liquid water, or feel sticky, a sign of high clay content.
• Wet: Soil will feel plastic and keep a molded shape; there is some clay content.
• Moist: Soil will crumble.
• Moderately Dry: Soil will show cloddiness or dustiness.
• Dry: Soil will crumble.

LAST STEP: Carefully collect 4 soil samples, about 1 cup each, from the same horizon and position from which you’ve taken your measurements. Label sample bags with your team members’ names, class, date, and LOCATION. You will be using these samples for your experiments in the coming weeks.

Modified after Soil Science, by Thien and Graveel, 1997

Objective: Students will compare, contrast, and recognize the significance of soil texture as a soil property.

Materials:
Water
Three different soil samples collected in field
Sand, silt, and clay percentage content triangle from geology text
Exercise #2 from Soil Science, pp. 21-32, by Thien and Graveel, 1997

Estimated Class Time Required: 2-3, 50 minute class periods.

Introduction:
Teacher briefly introduces topic of soil classification and demonstrates use of soil classification textural triangle.²² Teacher asks students to consider the following questions as they examine their soil samples for percentages of sand, silt, and/or clay:

• What is the relationship between soil texture and color?
• What is the relationship between soil wetness and soil texture?
• How would each soil react to a hazardous spill, such as gasoline?
• What could account for the difference in absorption rate for each soil?

Students will work in their respective teams to characterize the soils. Teacher circulates continuously among student teams, anticipating questions, and monitoring student progress.

Objective: Students will examine and apply the principle of dispersion and sedimentation through calculating particle flow rates using Stokes Law.

Materials:
Soil Hydrometer, ASTM, # 152H with Bouyoucos scale in grams per liter
Sedimentation cylinder, with 1000mL mark
Dispersing solution: Dissolve 35.7g technical grade sodium hexametaphosphate, (NaPO₃)₆, and 7.9g sodium carbonate,Na₂CO₃, in about 900mL of deionized water. Adjust pH to 8.3 with additional sodium carbonate. Bring final volume to 1000mL.
Thermometer
Balance
Mechanical Mixer with stirring cup
30% Hydrogen peroxide, H₂O₂, for optional procedure only
Sieve, 300 mesh, (50µ m openings), for optional procedure only
Exercise #3, pages 33-42, from Soil Science, by Thien and Graveel, 1997

Estimated Class Time Required: 4, 50 minute class periods

Introduction:
Teacher reviews key concepts, key terms, and experimental procedure on first class day with students. Key terms include dispersion, aggregates, primary particles, polyvalent cations, suspension, sedimentation, and flocculation (of clays).

Teacher reviews concept and application of Stokes Law:

V = kD² , where V equals velocity of particle, k equals a constant, 11241 (@ 30^oC), and D equals particle diameter. Stokes Law demonstrated the relationship between the settling rate of a particle and its size. Small particles, with high specific surface areas, settle more slowly than larger particles.

"Stokes’ Law accurately predicts the fall velocity of particles whose Reynolds number, Vgdp/µ , is less than about 0.5. This corresponds to silt-size and finer quartz-density particles in water."²³

Teacher relates field application of Stokes’ Law to particles in suspension in moving water. A moving flow rate keeps particles in suspension; as water slows down, heavy sand particles drop out of suspension first, then silt sized particles, then, as flow rate stops, clay sized particles.²⁴

Teacher also demonstrates the use of a hydrometer. This part of the experiment requires at least two hours; a member of each team will have to return later in the day to take required measurements, after suspension has settled, about 2 hours time. Since hydrometers and sieves are relatively expensive, student teams will have to alternate their use.

Students should be wearing safety goggles, chemistry aprons, and disposable gloves while performing the experiment with the dispersion medium.

Objective: Students will observe and examine types of water movement in soils.

Materials:
Video: "How Water Moves Through Soil", by Jack Watson, 1994, available through
College of Agriculture, University of Arizona, 715 North Park Avenue, Tucson, Arizona, 85719
Exercise #6, pages 73-88, from Soil Science, by Thien and Graveel
Three soil samples: clay loam, sandy loam, and silty loam
Beakers, 3 per team
Graduated cylinders, 3 per team
Glass tubes, 3 per team
Ring stand 1 per team
Soda straws, 3 per team
Sponges, 3 per team

Estimated Class Time Required: 2, 50 minute class periods

Introduction:
Teacher begins with a demonstration. Teacher asks students to predict how much water a dry sponge will hold. Teacher wets sponge from large beaker of water, and then asks student to squeeze the sponge into an empty beaker, and to pour the water into a graduated cylinder to measure.

Teacher equates a full sponge as supersaturated, a damp sponge as saturated, and a dry sponge as unsaturated. Teacher asks students how these terms might apply to soil water content and which type of soil would hold more water.

Teacher briefly introduces video on first day, reminding students to apply concepts of video to their experimentation on second day.

Students will perform experiments on the second day in their respective teams.

Objective: Students will demonstrate, through experimentation, weathering processes on soils and infer how human activity might affect the way soils interact with their environment.

Materials:
Hot plate
Erlenmeyer flasks
Beakers
Test tubes
pH meter, or pH indicator papers
Exercise #7 from Soil Science, pages 89-100, by Thien and Graveel, 1997
Sucrose
Drinking straws
Soils: acid soil, neutral soil, and red soil
Mortar, pestle
20 and 60 mesh sieves
Fluorapatite, Ca₅(PO₄)₃F
Ammonium molybdate: Dissolve 5g (NH₄)MO₄ in 50mL deionized water. Heat and filter if turbid, then add 50mL concentrated nitric acid and 100mL deionized water
Stannous chloride: For stock solution, dissolve 10g SnCl₃*2H₂O in 25mL concentrated Hydrochloric acid and store in a brown glass bottle. Then each day, make a fresh solution by combining 3mL stock solution and 97mL deionized water.
Phenolphthalein indicator: dissolve 0.5g indicator in 800mL ethyl alcohol and bring to 100mL with deionized water.
Solutions: dissolve the following amount of chemical in deionized water. Bring to 1000mL volume.
0.1 N hydrochloric acid: 8.3mL concentration HCL
1.0 N ammonium hydroxide: 35g NH₄OH
Saturated ammonium oxalate: 50g (NH₄)₂C₂O₄*H₂O
Saturated calcium hydroxide: add Ca(OH)₂ until excess solid is evident
1 M sodium carbonate: 86g Na₂CO₃
1 M sodium chloride: 58.4g NaCl
1 M calcium chloride: 147g CaCl₂*2H₂O
1 M aluminum chloride: 241.5g AlCl₃*6H₂O

Estimated Class Time Required: 3, 50 minute class periods

Introduction:

Teacher introduces topic and reviews experimental procedures and lab safety with student teams. Teacher also reviews key concepts with students: types of physical and chemical weathering, hydration, hydrolysis, carbonation, and oxidation-reduction. Students will be demonstrating and evaluating each of these concepts in their experimentation.

Teacher reviews with students how human activity can greatly affect soil properties. Contamination, depletion, pollution, erosion, and/or compaction of soils can result from negative human impact of such activities as dumping illegally, wastewater runoff, toxic leaching, and hydrocarbon pollution.

Teacher reminds students that they are surveying their neighborhood sectors for such examples, and others, of such soil pollution.

Students perform experiments in their respective teams and should wear safety goggles, chemistry aprons, and disposable gloves.

Lesson Plan #7: Testing Properties of Colloids in Soil Environment:

Objective: Students will demonstrate, through experimentation, how soil colloids can absorb and exchange cations and how colloids, both organic and mineral, absorb water. Students will also examine how the special properties of colloids contribute to the retention of contaminants.

Materials:
Funnels, funnel rack, test tubes, test tube rack, medium speed filter paper (e.g. Whatman no.2)
Soil samples collected in the field
0.2% bentonite suspension: slowly sift 2g bentonite into 1000mL deionized water while vigorously stirring
Bentonite and kaolinite clay in dry powder form
Petri dish, 60 x 15 mm
500mL plastic beakers, spatula
Balance
Solutions: dissolve the following amount of chemical in deionized water. Bring to 1000mL volume.
        0.02 N barium acetate: 2.55g Ba(C₂H₃O₂)₂
        Saturated potassium dichromate: 100g K₂Cr₂O₇
        0.2 N potassium chloride: 14.9g KCl
        N sodium chloride: 5.84gNaCl
        Saturated ammonium oxalate: 50g (NH₄)₂C₂O₄*2H₂O
        N potassium chloride: 7.46g KCl
        N hydrochloric acid: 8.3mL concentrated HCl
        N calcium chloride: 7.35g CaCl₂*2H₂O
        0.1 N magnesium chloride: 10.2g MgCl₂*6H₂O
        N aluminum chloride: 8.05g AlCl₃*6H₂O
        Dilute benzyltrimethylammonium chloride: 5g C₆H₅CH₂N(CH₃)₃Cl
        Exercises #8, pages 101-116, from Soil Science, by Thien and Graveel

Estimated Class Time Required: 3, 50 minute class periods

Introduction:

Teacher introduces topic and reviews experimental procedures, key terms and concepts with students. Key terms include cation, anion, cation exchange, and flocculation.

Both organic (humus) and mineral (clay) colloids have the ability to swell greatly with absorbed water because their constituent particles have large specific surface areas where they can store cations, such as calcium, Ca, magnesium, Mg, and potassium, K. Colloids, since they are negatively charged at their outer perimeters, repel other negatively charged particles and attract positive cations. Colloids greatly affect soil pH, by freeing excess hydrogen ions from water, and thus affect soil acidity.²⁵

Objective: Students will examine the mechanisms of soil acidity by using a pH meter, by using a displacing solution to extract hydrogen ions, and by applying fundamentals of neutralization reactions in acid-base chemistry.

Materials:
Soil samples
pH meter and standard solutions for pH calibration
small glass beakers or paper cups
filtration funnels
0.5 N barium acetate: dissolve 63.8g Ba(C₂H₃O₂)₂ in deionized water and bring to 1000mL volume
Phenolphthalein indicator: dissolve 0.5g phenolphthalein in 800mL ethyl alcohol and bring to a final volume with 1000mL deionized water
N sodium hydroxide: dissolve 0.4g NaOH in deionized water and bring to1000mL volume. Titrate against a standard acid solution to determine exact normality
Exercise #9, from Soil Science, pages 117-126, by Thien and Graveel

Estimated Class Time Required: 2, 50 minutes class periods

Introduction:

Teacher introduces topic, reviews key concepts, key terms, and experiment procedure with students prior to experiment. Key concepts include pH scale, acid-base chemical reactions and chemical equations. Key terms include acidity, basicity, buffer, buffering capacity, and neutralization reaction. Students should perform these experiments wearing safety goggles, chemistry aprons, and disposable gloves.

Soil acidity is measured by its pH, or level of exchangable hydrogen ions. Various soil chemical and biochemical activities, such as soil reactivity, plant availability, compound solubility, and toxicity are affected by soil acidity levels. Clays and/or organic matter serve as buffers in soils resisting change in pH. Optimal soil pH for most plant growth is 6.8pH, a slightly acidic soil. The pH of acidic soils can be altered by adding neutralizing agents, such as lime, calcium carbonate.²⁶

Objective: Students will perform experiments to determine soil salinity and sodicity.

Materials:
Balance
Three soil samples: normal, saline, and sodic, 100g each
Deionized water
pH meter, or pH indicator papers
Buchner funnel
Funnels, 3 per team
Ring stands, 3 per team
Medium speed filter paper
0.5% calcium chloride, CaCl₂, solution
0.5% sodium chloride, NaCl, solution
4mm sieve
Solid sodium chloride crystals
6, 1kg samples of normal soil
Various seeds: barley or bermuda grass (salt tolerant), oats, cabbage, or wheat (moderately salt tolerant), and red clover, tomato, or celery (low salt tolerant)
15 small clay or plastic pots
Exercise #11, pages 141-152, from Soil Science, by Thien and Graveel

Introduction:

Teacher introduces topic and reviews key concepts, key terms, and lab safety, with students. Students perform experiments in their respective teams.

Soil salinity, or too much soluble salt, can adversely affect plant growth in soils. Soil salinity also lessens water content. Sodicity, too many exchangable sodium ions, renders soils impermeable to air and water. Soil runoff and erosion can result. When poor quality irrigation water is used in dry climates, soil salinity can increase.

Salinity is a measure of high salt levels in soils formed by certain cations: calcium, Ca²⁺, magnesium, Mg²⁺, and sodium, Na⁺, forming compounds with anions: chloride, Cl^-, sulfate, SO₄^2-, and bicarbonate, HCO₃^-. Soil pH, in conjunction with an electrical conductivity test, measures the concentration of these saline ions in soils.

Soil salinity increases osmotic water tension and limits available soil water. Seeds that are trying to germinate have more difficulty extracting the water. In arid climates, salts can accumulate in soils because much of the water infiltrating into soils evaporates. Salinity in soils can increase soil pH and reduce other plant nutrients as well. ²⁷

Objective: Students will investigate, describe, and record the impact various human activities have on soils.

Materials:
South Valley map, 1 per team
Survey questions
Student field book

Introduction:
Teacher introduces topic briefly and brainstorms with students on possible sources of contamination in the South Valley. Teacher and students compile list on overhead and/or chalkboard. Teacher recommends that students conduct survey in their respective teams, work in assigned survey area, record information on maps and in field books, in daylight hours only, and that students should be polite while in other neighborhoods.

Possible contamination sources would include business dumping or littering, septic system leaks, industry pollution, illegal dumping and/or landfill, irrigated fields, animal wastes, and wastewater runoff.

Survey:

1. Describe the geographic location of your survey area, with respect to perimeter boundaries, and label on map and describe in your field books.
2. Are there any businesses and/or industry in your survey area? If so, describe and locate on your maps.
3. Do you find any evidence of contamination from older businesses in your survey area, ones that are no longer in operation? If so, describe and locate on your maps.
4. Do any of the residents in your survey area have animal enclosures, irrigated fields, orchards, or large gardens? Do you find evidence of excess fertilizer use or animal waste dumping? Describe and label on your survey map.
5. Do any of the residents have their own water wells and/or septic systems? Describe and locate on your map.
6. Do you find any other evidence of soil contamination? Describe and locate on your map.

Objective: Students will utilize soil maps to inventory and evaluate soils in their survey areas. Students will correlate their earlier experimental results with predictions of possible contaminant levels and sources in their respective survey areas.

Materials:

Soil Survey of Bernalillo County and Parts of Sandoval and Valencia Counties, New Mexico, published by the Natural Resources Conservation Service, U.S.          Department of Agriculture
Student field books and survey maps
Soil Survey report form

Estimated Class Time Required: 1-2, 50 minute class periods

Introduction:

Teacher introduces topic and demonstrates the use of soil maps. Teacher reviews key terms with students: map units, soil association, soil series, soil phases, and soil complex.

Students correlate their respective survey areas with soil maps to find the type of soils within their survey area. Students then compare their own experimental results with what contaminants they found in their areas, and predict how each soil type might contain and/or release contaminant.

Objectives: Students will test and evaluate an unknown sample of soil using their acquired lab skills. Students will also develop a model for tracking change in soil type with respect to predicted environmental impacts. Students will also develop a cost-risk benefit analysis in the context of environmental issues of soil contamination.

Materials:
Beakers, graduated cylinders, ring stands, and funnels
Medium weight filter paper
pH meter, or pH indicator papers
Munsell color chart
Unknown soil sample, in quantity
Various chemicals for testing soils (see appropriate lab for each relevant test)

Estimated Class Time Required: 2, 50 minute class periods

Introduction:
Teacher sets up 6 testing stations to examine unknown soil sample for one type of test at each of the following soil color, soil grain size, soil wetness, soil acidity, soil salinity, and soil composition (constituent grains, percentage of sand, silt, or clay, and organic matter content). The procedure for each station will be written on the examination. Only one student at a time should be at each station; students should rotate stations until all experiments have been performed. While at their desks, each student should work independently to answer other short essay questions on test. Essay questions should be representative of soils unit overall, require critical thinking skills, (such as evaluation, synthesis, and analysis), and should number minimum 6 to maximum 10.

Notes:

Bibliography

1.Anderson, Wes, Bancroft, Anne, Cully Anne, Ellis, Lisa, Graybill, Alice, Gunckel, Kristen, Hardage, Bill, Morris, Letitia, Parker, Don, Rosenthal, Laurie, Scheib, Gregory, Schneider, Maryann, Soergel, Heidi, Stolz, Gary M., Stever, Mary, Tierney, Gail, Tolisano, Jim, Trujillo, Diana, Trujillo, Don, Tydinga, Rebecca, Voldahl, Mary, and Woods, Ann, 1995, Bosque Education Guide, The Middle Rio Grande Initiative, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Albuquerque, NM, pages 1-35.

2.Compton, Robert R., 1985, Geology in the Field, John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY, pages 197-217.

3.Cordell, Linda, 1996, "Heritage and Human Environment", Albuquerque’s Environmental Story, http://www.cabq.gov/aes/s3pueblo.html.

4.Hacker, Leroy W., 1977, Soil Survey of Bernalillo County and parts of Sandoval and Valencia counties, New Mexico, Natural Resources Conservation Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, pages 1-8,88-97, and soil maps 30, 31, 40, 41,46, 47, 49, 50, and 54.

5.Hawley, John W., 1999, "Hydrogeologic Framework of the Rio Grande Rift Basins, Central and Southern New Mexico", New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, New Mexico Tech, 2500 Yale Blvd, SE, Albuquerque, NM, abstract.

6.Herrera, Dolores, May 1999, "AT &SF Albuquerque Superfund Site, Update", San Jose Community Newsletter, Albuquerque San Jose Community Awareness Council, Inc, P. O. Box 12297, Albuquerque, NM, 87195-2297, Vol. 10, No. 19, pages 1-5

7.Ivey, Robert Dewitt, 1983, Flowering Plants of New Mexico, a Sketchbook, published by Author, 9311 Headingly Ct., NE, Albuquerque, NM, 87111, pages 40-187.

8.Keeney, Daniel, 1999, "Soil quality: A Call for Action", Conservation Voices, Soil and Water Conservation Society, 7515 NE, Ankeny Rd., Ankeny, Iowa, Vol. 12, Issue 2, page 4.

9.Kelly, Vincent C., 1977, Geology of the Albuquerque Basin, New Mexico Memoir 33, New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, New Mexico Tech, Socorro, NM, pages 7-54.

10.Leeder, M. R., 1982, Sedimentology, Process and Product, George Allen and Unwin, Boston, MA, pages 35-43, 67.

11.Logan, William Bryant, 1992, "Ecstatic Skin of the Earth", Conservation Voices, Soil and Water Conservation Society, 7515 NE, Ankeny Road, Ankeny, Iowa, Vol. 12, Issue, 2, pages 16-17.

12.Logan, William Bryant, 1992, "Hans Jenny and the Pygmy Forest", Orion, The Myrin Institute, 136 east 64^th St., New York, NY, 10021, Vol. 11, No. 2, pages17-29.

13.McAuliffe, Joseph R., 1999, "Desert Soils", Desert Botanical Garden publication, Phoenix, AZ, pages 1-24.

14.Merritts, Dorothy, DeWet, Andrew, and Menking, Kirsten, 1997, Environmental Geology, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, NY, pages 1-188, 220-227.

15.Molles, Jr., Manuel C., 1999, Ecology, Concepts and Applications, McGraw Hill Boston, MASS, pages 1-99.

16.Pazzaglia, Frank J., Woodward, Lee A., Lucas, Spencer G., Anderson, Orin J., Wegmann, Karl W., and Estep, John, 1999, Phanerozoic Geologic Evolution of the Albuquerque Area, 1999, in press, pages 1-25, and Figures A-J.

17.Ritter, Dale, F., 1985, Process Geomorphology, Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, IA, pages 84-125, 138-152, 153-204, 220-227.

18.Rosner, Hy and Joan, 1996, "The Albuquerque Environmental Story", http://www.cabq.gov/aes.

19.Stuart, Kevin, 1992, "A Life with the Soil: A Conservation with Hans Jenny", Orion, The Myrin Institute, 136 east 64^th St., New York, NY, 10021, Vol. 11, No.2, pages 30-35.

20.Thein, Steven J., and Graveel, John G., 1997, Soil Science, Agricultural and Environmental Principles, Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, IA, pages 1-218.

1.Hacker, Leroy W., 1977, Soil Survey of Bernalillo County and Parts of Sandoval and Valencia Counties, New Mexico, Natural Resource Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

2.Ivey, Robert Dewitt, 1983, Flowering Plants of New Mexico, published by author, 9311 Headingly Ct., NE, Albuquerque, NM, 87111.

3.Merritts, Dorothy, DeWet, Andrew, and Menking, Kirsten, 1997, Environmental Geology, W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, NY.

4.Molles, Jr., Manuel C., 1999, Ecology, Concepts and Applications, McGraw Hill, Boston, MASS.

5.Pazzaglia, Frank J., Woodward, Lee A., Lucas, Spencer G., Anderson, Orin J., Wegmenn, Karl W., and Estep, John, 1999, Phanerozoic Geologic Evolution of The Albuquerque Area, in press. (Guidebook for Geology Conference, Albuquerque, NM, September, 1999).

6.Thein, Steven J., and Graveel, John G., 1997, Soil Science, Agricultural and Environmental Principles, Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, IA.

1.High School Geology Text, relevant chapters on physical and chemical weathering processes, mineral composition, water movement.

2.Merritts, Dorothy, DeWet, Andrew, and Menking, Kirsten, 1997, "Soils, Chapter 6", Environmental Geology, W. H. Freeman and Company, Boston, MASS, pages 158-188.

Munsell Color Chart
Bouyoucos hydrometer
Sedimentation cylinder
Mechanical mixer with stirrer
Soil shovels, 6-8 count (small garden trowel or shovel)
Soil thermometers, 6-8 count
Hand lens, 6-8 count
Balances, 6-8 count
Sieves, assorted mesh, from coarse ,4, to fine, 300
Assorted chemistry glassware: beakers, graduated cylinders, funnels, Erlenmeyer flasks,
Ring Stands, 12-18 count
pH meter, or pH indicator papers
City and Soil Survey maps
Geology hammers, optional
Chemicals (note: a complete list of chemicals, for each experiment, is written with each lesson plan involving experiments)
Deionized water, in quantity
Chemistry aprons, safety goggles, and disposable gloves

One important reason for examining the geological framework is that such understanding can determine the composition and source of parent rock material. Such investigations require an elementary understanding of the varied and complex geological processes that have shaped the New Mexico of today. Indeed, many of these processes are still active and ongoing.

The oldest rocks in New Mexico formed about 1.4-1.8 Ga, (Giga annum, 1Ga = 1 billion years). These Precambrian granites can be seen in the Sandias, east of Albuquerque, and in other mountains in New Mexico. When first deposited in the earth’s lithosphere, these granites formed a craton, an ancient continental crust of basement rock.The Sandia Granite today provides much of the quartz, feldspar, and biotite rock parent material for basin soils.²⁸

After a gap, or unconformity of over 1Ga, the next rocks to be deposited and which remained in the Albuquerque area were marine limestones and shales of the Paleozoic Era, some 300Ma, (Million annum, 1MA = 1 million years). The Madera Shale can be seen capping the Sandia Granites; it provides calcium carbonate rock fragments. During the Paleozoic, there were, also, a series of uplifts, folding and faulting of rock layers, of the continental crust, and New Mexico began to develop a more varied topography. In certain areas, the crust began to sink, or subside.²⁹

During the Triassic Period, of the Mesozoic Era, eastward flowing rivers in the western part of the state began to deposit sandstones, siltstones, and mudstones in much of New Mexico. The Chinle Formation of this period left behind some very distinctive red sand, silt and clay deposits. ³⁰

During the Jurassic Period, much of western New Mexico was covered by a vast desert, which produced coarse sands. The Entrada, Todilto, and Morrison Formations form large cliff faces of Jurassic sands in western New Mexico. Some of these further eroded Jurassic sands have been deposited on the Llano de Albuquerque, west of the Albuquerque Basin. ³¹

During the Cretaceous Period that followed, there was relatively little tectonic activity of rock folding and faulting. Much of central and eastern New Mexico was covered by a vast inland sea, the Western Interior Seaway. As the sea alternately rose and fell, it deposited limestones, siltstones and shales. ³²

At the end of the Cretaceous period and the beginning of the Cenozoic period, there was a major episode of mountain building, called the Laramide Orogeny, in which the Rocky Mountains were formed. The Sangre de Cristo Mountains, in northern New Mexico, were also formed at this time.³³

During the Oligocene Epoch, of the Cenozoic, some 30Ma, there was considerable volcanism in New Mexico, in which rocks of the San Juan Mountains formed. At the end of this epoch, some 30Ma, the crust of the Albuquerque Basin area was subject to stretching and thinning stresses, which produced basins. As sediments began to accumulate in these basins, the crust subsided even further. ³⁴

Also during the Oligocene, the entire continental crust of the southwestern area of the United States began to undergo stretching in some areas and compression in others, which resulted in a series of generally north-south trending series of fault blocks alternating with upthrust blocks, and produced what is known as basin and range. In the Albuquerque Basin, a series of north-south trending faults pushed up the Precambrian Granite and Madera Limestone of the Sandia Mountains. The downdropped blocks of the Albuquerque Basin dip more to the east. Overall, the difference in elevation was 20,000 feet, from the top of the Sandias’ Madera Limestone, at over 10,000 feet in elevation, to the same Madera Limestone rock strata buried some 10,000 feet below basin sand and gravel fill.³⁵

Beginning in the Miocene, the Albuquerque Basin continued to subside from sediment infill from a variety of waterborne sources: tributary stream, floodplain, river, lacustrine, and piedmont. Collectively, these deposits form the lower part of the Santa Fe Group, which became an aquifer. The water trapped within the lower Santa Fe Group is more saline and not as potable as the water trapped in the upper part of the Santa Fe Group, of Pliocene and Pleistocene sand and gravel. ³⁶

During the late Cenozoic Period, several major volcanic events also occurred in New Mexico, producing varied mountain peaks, claderas, cinder cones and extensive lava flows. A series of mafic basalt flows produced the Santa Anna Benches, some 2.5Ma. The Jemez Mountains, for example, were produced by several successive eruptions during this time, between 1.6-1.8 Ma; one of the more spectacular was the pyroclastic flows which produced the Bandelier Tuff, that formed the Pajarito Plateau upon which Los Alamos is located. Today, the Jemez Mountains are not only the watershed for the Albuquerque Basin, but also provide a lot of parent rock material as well. As recently as 150-160 ka (ka = thousand annum), a series of mafic basalt flows erupted into fault fissures on the western flank of the Albuquerque Basin, again producing a large volume of parent rock material for the basin.³⁷

Alternating with these volcanic eruptions were a series of major depositional events, as the ancient Rio Grande River alternately deposited sediments and excised those sediments. The Sierra Ladrones Formation, of late Miocene to Pleistocene Epoch, forms the upper part of the Santa Fe Group and fills the Albuquerque Basin. It contains varied deposits, from coarsest cross-bedded sandstones with cobble sized grains, to very fine floodplain silts and clays. ³⁸

Up until about 1 Ma, the ancient Rio Grande River did not flow through New Mexico completely, as it does today. During a Pleistocene interglacial warming period, the discharge of headwaters into the Rio Grande increased dramatically, and the ancient river broke through the earlier delta fans it had deposited in the Miocene. The ancient river flowed through many channels, creating a braided stream of several channels, and depositing sands and gravels in broad alluvial terraces, that one can see flanking the current river basin.³⁹

Today, the Rio Grande River still deposits sands, silts, and clays in the Albuquerque Basin. It also is a source of major recharge of the aquifer underlying the city. Unfortunately, as the city has grown along the river, so has the environmental impact of man. The Rio Grande River of today is a very pollution tolerant river, with many introduced species; indigenous species are rapidly disappearing from the Bosque riparian community.⁴⁰

The Albuquerque Basin soils provide the framework for several different biotas, or life zones, in which different plant and animal communities occur in both undisturbed and disturbed areas.

"A natural plant community is the product of all environmental factors, including, but not limited to, climate, soil, and topography". ⁴¹

Excepting the area immediately adjacent to the Rio Grande River, most plant cover is sparse, and usually doesn’t exceed 20%. Evaporation rates are high, precipitation is low, usually 7-14 inches per annum. When vegetation is disturbed, severe erosion results, both from seasonal runoff and blowout by high winds. Agriculture and grazing, too, have removed topsoil layers and much-needed groundcover, which stabilizes slopes.⁴²

The Albuquerque Basin varies in elevation from 4,850-7,000 feet, from steppe, shrub grassland, to pygmy pinyon-juniper on the eastern foothills of the Sandia, Manzanito, and Manzano Mountains. The life zone is generally lower and upper Sonoran.⁴³

The Rio Grande River course is heavily vegetated with riparian cottonwood community, referred to as the Bosque. Along the river course are groves of tamarisk, Russian olive, and several species of willows, in addition to the cottonwoods. In marshes adjacent to the river grow saltgrasses and herbaceous plants. These bottomlands are composed of saline, alkalai, silty clay-loams, silty clays, sandy loams, and loamy sands. Grasses and shrubs include blue grass, western wheatgrass, tobosa, galleta, burrograss, inland saltgrass, and mat muhly. The most abundant shrub is fourwing saltbush.⁴⁴

The Bosque supports an abundance of wildlife and all orders of animals are represented. Migratory and resident birds occur in large flocks. Insects, amphibians, reptiles, and small mammals are plentiful. Many of these species, however, are introduced and are not only more pollution tolerant, but are highly competitive and tend to take over the equivalent niches occupied by rarer, indigenous species.⁴⁵

On terraces flanking either side of the river, some 4,850-6,000 feet elevation, are soils that are sandy, silty, and or loamy in composition. Again, the plant community is a grassland shrub mixture. Dominant plants include Indian ricegrass, blackgrama, various dropseed species, galleta, muhy, and bluestem and bluegrama. These grasses provide 75% of the much needed groundcover for loose, unconsolidated soils. The dominant shrub is sand sagebrush.⁴⁶

The West Mesa is associated with shallow, cobbly, sandy loams, and ranges in elevation from 5,200-5,800 feet. The sparse vegetation cover consists primarily of grasses: galleta, black grama, varies dropseed species, bottlebrush, squirreltail, Indian ricegrass, bush muhly, silver bluestem, three awn, and sideoats grass. The most common shrubs are fourwing saltbush, winterfat, and wolfberry. Creosote, broom snakeweed, althorn, and rubber rabbitbrush are found in some areas. This area receives the least rainfall in the entire Albuquerque Basin, only 7-10 inches per annum.⁴⁷

Where vegetation is still relatively undisturbed, animal life includes many species of snakes, lizards, small mammals and insects, and other arthropods.

The alluvial fans and piedmont terraces east of the Rio Grande River, some 5,000-7,000 feet in elevation, are composed of sandy loams and loamy fine sands, much of it unconsolidated. The dominant grasses are Indian ricegrass, black grama, various dropseed species, New Mexico feathergrass, and galleta. Shrubs include fourwing saltbush, winterfat, wolfberry, Morman tea, and soapweed. ⁴⁸ Pygmy pinyon- juniper woodland covers many undisturbed slopes, from 6,000-7,000 feet, part of the upper Sonoran lifezone.⁴⁹

In addition to supporting many vertebrate species, the soils of the Albuquerque Basin support much invertebrate live below ground level.

"Soils contain over a thousand different species of lower animals, the earthworms, pill bugs, nematodes, millipedes, termites, ants, and amoebas, not to mention the millions of molds and bacteria."…"When I add up the live weight, exclusive of roots, I find more living biomass below ground than above it."⁵⁰

This curriculum unit is designed to entice sixth graders initially to learn about and ultimately to care about water. By combining scientific observation and experimentation with simultaneous poetic observation and experimentation, students will reach an interdisciplinary understanding of the water cycle, its history and its phases.

The students will perform experiments that demonstrate various aspects of the water cycle. Upon completion of these experiments they will be asked to write poems in various forms based on their observations and reflections. The culminating project will be "Water Dance Notebook," a compilation of notes, experiments, poetry, illustrations, recommendations and assessments.

Both the experiments and the poems mentioned in this unit have been excerpted from existing curricula, or previously published books and anthologies of poetry. It is not my intention to create my own material but to borrow from the existing wealth of available material and to combine the best examples of basic scientific experimentation with forms of poetry that complement the science.

It is important to note that my target classes are sixth graders from a predominantly Hispanic population. Two-thirds of them read below grade level, most of them live at or below the poverty level, and when they get to high school, an appalling number of them drop out. Most are reluctant readers at best, who might skim a book about Michael Jordan or Johnny Tapia, but I would estimate that less than five percent of my students read for pleasure in their leisure moments or even find reading to be an enjoyable activity. It was therefore not surprising to discover that their science scores on the recent Terra Nova Standardized Test were abysmally low.

Given science's unfortunately dry reputation and its daunting vocabulary, (particularly so for struggling readers), and adding the fact that my sixth graders find little success in the science program on my team, which is primarily a self -directed one, a solution to this dilemma came to me: Why not use the same techniques and study skills I use in my Language Arts classes to motivate reluctant readers to learn about science?

As educators we have a tendency to compartmentalize our particular field and unfortunately, our students assimilate this separation very quickly. They have to be taught that the same note-taking skills their Lang/Lit teacher taught them can be used in science class, and math class, and so on. They need to not be surprised when their math teacher uses a poem as part of a demonstration on fractions, or their science teacher gives them a mnemonic device in the form of a song for remembering the names of their major bones. They need to learn that by observing a waterfall they are not only watching a part of the water cycle process, but they might be feeling a special kinship with that water--one that screams to be released in the form of a poem. They need to know that emotional reactions to environmental events are a testament to their humanity, to their left and right brainedness, to the ebb and flow, the waxing and waning, the completeness of being alive.

So it is that I hope to capitalize on my sixth graders’ innate love of poetry and their natural curiosity about the world around them to stimulate them to become actively involved with science through these experiments with the water cycle and the corresponding poems. Hopefully, they will be able not only to become excited about this highly motivational, hands-on approach to learning about science, but also to come away with a new respect for their environment and their place in it.

Because my school will be using block scheduling next year, that is, a rotating schedule wherein each class meets every other day for approximately seventy-six minutes, as opposed to the traditional forty-three minute class, I am estimating that this unit should take two to three weeks to implement, depending on the number of unexpected diversions from the regular schedule. I plan to insert it into the last part of my regular poetry unit which usually lasts about three to four weeks. It will serve as the culminating segment of my poetry unit, thereby insuring at least some familiarity with the many terms involved in the study of poetry. I am hoping that if my students feel comfortable with similes and personification, precipitation and transpiration will not be too much of a burden for them.

I introduce poetry to my sixth graders by writing the words to the popular sixties' song "Doo Wa Diddy" on the board. It is a truly awesome model of rhyme, rhyme scheme, alliteration, repetition, imagery, musicality, and sheer fun. I then turn it into a choral reading by having the boys sing, "There she was, just a walkin' down the street, singin..." and the girls chime in with, "Doo wa diddy, diddy, dum, diddy doo." We proceed through the rest of the lines, alternating, boys and girls, until we have mastered both verses. When the laughter subsides, I inform them that they have just used six poetic devices, and apparently had a great time doing it. Motivation is high at this point- a usually stellar moment!

So I will begin my "Water Dance" unit by reminding them of the "Doo Wa Diddy" exercise. I will then write on the board the words to a parody of the song which I wrote in order to introduce them to a very special part of our poetry studies: (Students are usually very appreciative when their teacher shares original poetry with them)

As soon as the applause subsides, I will tell them about our special task: We are going to combine poetry with science to learn about the water cycle, why water is important and what we can do to protect the water around us. We will become Scientific Poets, or Poetic Scientists, whichever they prefer, for the next few weeks while we use our note-taking skills, our previous knowledge of poetic terms, our observations and our reflections to experiment with water and to write poetry about those experiments. We will begin by taking a look at the history of water on Earth.

Students will be reminded that they are responsible for keeping a notebook on all phases of the unit, and that they should take notes on everything, particularly on the lecture portions of the unit.

Each segment of the unit will include a list of vocabulary words which the students will need to define and learn in order to understand the ensuing text. Word searches, crossword puzzles, the matching game (cards are turned face down; one card has the term, another card contains the definition. All cards are scattered randomly and students attempt to match term and definition by remembering the location of both cards) and games of Password using significant terms all help to ease the onus of bombardment by new vocabulary.

In order to trace the origins of water, we must first look back more than four billion years to the origin of the Earth. (Impress your friends by telling them a giga-annum is the coolest way to express a billion years.) Most scientists believe that the Earth and the Solar System were formed from the dust and gas ultimately formed during the "Big Bang," an explosive cosmic event, from which all energy and matter came. The dust and gas collected over time in certain regions of the expanding universe due to gravity to form a huge, sprawling cloud in space. As the cloud continued to spin, particles of dust and hot gas combined to form millions of stars in galaxies. One such star is the Sun, and the Earth and the other planets in our Solar System formed at the same time.

In the very beginning of its life, the Earth was a dense ball of largely solid rock. Some gases dissolved inside magmas that formed when part of the Earth's interior melts. These gases rise with the magma towards the surface where they are released by volcanoes and giant fissures in the Earth's surface. As these gases, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen escaped from the Earth by a process called outgassing, most of them were not able to escape all the way into space. The powerful pull of the Earth's gravity held all but light gases such as hydrogen and helium in Earth's atmosphere. This formed the first atmosphere, or the envelope of gases that surrounds the Earth.

This outgassing continued for hundreds of millions of years until the Earth's interior began to cool off. One of the gases in this early atmosphere was water vapor, water in gas form. As the temperature on Earth continued to cool, the newly formed water vapor in the atmosphere rained down as showers of hot water, covering most of the planet and forming the very first oceans. "Little water has been added to or lost from the surface of the Earth since the first rains that fell from the newly formed atmosphere" (1).

These first rains set in motion the hydrologic cycle, or water cycle, which is the continuous movement of water from one reservoir to another. Lakes, rivers and oceans, the atmosphere, land ice, and organisms, or living things, can all be thought of as reservoirs within the hydrologic cycle because water is stored in each of them at least for a little while. This continuous movement of water from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface and subsurface, and from these areas back to the atmosphere is known as the water cycle ( 2).

It impacts our lives in many ways. The weather we experience, how much and how often we must water our lawns in the summertime, how we store water, how we manage the water we have--these are all important aspects of our activities that affect the water cycle. Our understanding of how it works is essential for our very survival. Consider that of all the water in the world, only one percent is the fresh water in which we swim, wash our clothes, cook our macaroni, and with which we bathe and shower, not to mention what we drink! The fresh water that we use, where it comes from, and its continuous replacement are all aspects of the water cycle with which we need to become familiar.

One may consider the first major step in the water cycle to be the sun's heating of the surface of bodies of water such as lakes, streams, reservoirs, oceans or rivers, which causes that water to evaporate. Evaporation occurs because the sun’s intercepted radiation is transformed to heat, which is great enough to turn liquid water into water vapor or ice into water. Water vapor is also added to the atmosphere by transpiration, which is the release of water by plants. Plants collect water through their roots and lose it as it evaporates into the atmosphere through small openings on the undersides of their leaves.

Much of this water vapor is then carried higher into the Earth's atmosphere by rising air, which cools. This causes the water vapor to condense; the process of condensation can be recognized whenever water vapor comes in contact with cold air or cooler objects like the mirror in your bathroom after a hot shower, or dew or frost on plants or windows.

We can see the condensation of large amounts of water vapor in the form of clouds. As water vapor cools into clouds, the temperature determines what happens next. If the clouds stay warm, the water vapor will collect into ever increasing large drops. When these drops become too heavy, they turn into rain, a form of precipitation. Precipitation returns water from the atmosphere back to the surface of the Earth. If the clouds are cold, water vapor may turn into snow, or hail may be formed when rain drops are tossed high into the cold temperatures of the higher clouds.

During a rainstorm, some of the rainwater evaporates as it falls to the ground. The majority either infiltrates into the ground, possibly to become part of the ground water, or it may run over the surface of the ground until it enters a stream or a brook to become part of the surface water system. Streams combine to form rivers, which usually empty into lakes or oceans.

Sometimes rainwater soaks a few inches into the ground and stays there for a while before it is evaporated by the Sun's heat or is utilized by plants or animals. If the water soaks to really great depths under the ground, it may stay there for hundreds or even thousands of years. Water that collects under the Earth's surface is called groundwater.

Gravity causes it to seep downward into the subsoil, and the porous nature of soil, rock and sediment enables it to fill and flow through spaces around the rock particles. When it reaches a level where all the open space between the soil and rocks is completely filled with water, or saturated, it forms the water table. The water table may be very near to the surface of the ground, "or it may be as much as 200 to 600 feet deep, which is the case in many areas of the Southwest United States" (3). In any event, if the soil or rock formation which collects this water is able to hold enough of it for humans to be able to use it, it is called an aquifer. "About 88% of the population of New Mexico depends on ground water for drinking water", according to a report filed by the Environmental Protection Agency (4)

Different types of soil will vary in their ability to absorb water. In the Albuquerque area, the best combinations for yielding good ground water are sand/ silt and clay, sand/ pebble/ gravel, and gravel/ sand/ silt/ clay ( 5). In other words, if the soil is made up of mostly larger sand and gravel particles, there are more open spaces through which the ground water can travel. It can then be on its way to the water table.

When water does infiltrate below the ground surface, it may flow over the surface; this is called runoff. Runoff water travels over the surface of the ground and may cause soil erosion. Plant roots help limit this surface erosion. Water continues to flow underground, eventually flowing to the ocean. From the ocean and from the Earth's surface, water molecules can evaporate into the atmosphere, thereby contributing again to rainfall by initiating the water cycle again. Water is in constant motion through the ground water system (6).

At this point in the unit, it would be beneficial to the students to do a few summation activities. Because many of my students express a preference for using charts or diagrams as a means of collecting and organizing new information, a few are in order.

NOTE: Each student is required to write the objective for the day's activity in his agenda, a personal planner that is designed to teach students how to be organized.

Science Objective: Identify the parts of the water cycle and demonstrate the function of each in a drawing.

Lang/Lit Objective: Write alliterative combinations that deal with the water cycle. Write a four line poem that personifies some aspect of the water cycle.

I would write the following words on the board: sun, clouds, precipitation (rain, snow, hail), evaporation, mountains, ocean, river and waterfall. Then we would break up into groups of three or four and collaborate on a drawing of the water cycle, inserting arrows and terms in the appropriate places.

Next, I would ask them to pick three or four of these terms and write alliterative combinations of at least three words. For example, they might decide on "multitudes of majestic mountains," or "Eddie, the puddle, evaporated evenly." They then would be asked to summarize the main processes of the water cycle, and write them in bulletted form on the bottom part of their diagrams. For example, "The sun heats a water surface, which causes the water to evaporate." Students would then be directed to imagine that they are a drop of water in the water cycle and to write a four-line poem wherein they answer one of these questions:

1. Does evaporation hurt, or is it like being able to fly for the first time?

2. Is it hard to be torn away from your raindrop family? Do you have time to kiss goodbye?

3. Is being evaporated like dying in that you merely change form? Will you still have the same smile?

To maintain a high interest level , a general questionnaire on water and its properties might be used at this point. Water Science for Schools has developed such a questionnaire, with detailed explanations of the correct answers. It can be found on the Web at http://wwwga.usgs.gov/edu/sc3.html. Since my students are highly motivated by competitive activities, we could divide into two teams, Embryos and Zygotes, (my gentle reminder to them that they are still persons "under construction") and the team that comes up with the most correct answers, wins a prize (usually a sucker, which they can't seem to get enough of). They would be instructed to take notes when the correct answers were discussed. Then for homework, I would assign a water word search puzzle much like the one that can be found on the Web at http://www.fi.edu/qa97/puzzle12/puzzle12.html. Students would be asked to define the words they find in the word search. Which ones pertain to the water cycle and why? would be a bonus question.

Next, I think it might be helpful for them to see a diagram of the ground water system. There is an excellent one at another Water Science for Schools site, http://wwwga.usgs.gov/edu /earthgw.html. I will gather them around the Mac I am privileged to have in my room, and we will get an excellent visual portrayal of the system along with a detailed description of gravity, bedrock, sedimentary rocks and confining layers as they relate to the ground water system. Naturally, they will take notes and will approximate the drawing, with all the proper labels.

Tongue twisters occupy sixth graders for an inordinate amount of time, so at the risk of derailing a potentially serious thought, I will suggest that they create a tongue twister that relates to the ground water system. For example, "Saturated soil sits silently so Sara sees little saline on Saturday." Students will be reminded that all activities will be included in their "Water Dance Notebooks," which will be the major assessment tool of the unit.

There is one more aspect of the water cycle that we need to address and this is the effects of urbanization on the water supply. Urbanization can be defined simply as the population growth in cities. Before World War II many people lived in rural, or farm areas of our country. Many in dry regions had their own well from which they drew ground water. After World War II, people began moving to the cities for many reasons. When large amounts of people congregate in one place, more houses, sinks, toilets and washing machines, gardens, slip 'n slides, shopping malls, and Kool-Aid are needed. You get the picture--they need more water. But from where will it come?

Once again, Water Science for Schools provides a very understandable web site, http://wwwga.usgs.gov/edu/urbaneffects.html, entitled, "How Urbanization affects the hydrologic system." Again, I will troop my students over to the computer and we will read and take notes on "The Beginning of Urbanization," which deals with changes in land use and effects on the water system, "Beginning of large-scale urbanization, and finally, "Continuing urbanization." Both have segments on the change in land use and the corresponding effect on the water system. To conclude, the article presents "Local community takes steps to fix some problems," which offers possibilities for every community to use in dealing with increased urbanization and its effects on the water system.

This leads right into the section on what each individual can do to conserve water. The Department of the Interior/Bureau of Reclamation offers a series of lesson plans called "Water Share." "Urban Water--Water and You," is a middle-school lesson plan designed to encourage students to make a personal water audit. For twenty four hours, they keep track of their water use. For instance, "I took a bath, filling the tub almost full." After twenty four hours of use are documented, they are given a chart that shows the task, for instance, "bathing, full tub." They are told that that activity consumes forty gallons of water, but that a tub of low level water uses only fifteen gallons. Water amounts are given for many activities from getting a drink to washing the car, showing tables of average use, and then the conservation table. Students are then asked to document another twenty-four hour cycle using their newfound conservation behaviors. (A personal note: Since I read this report, I can no longer brush my teeth with the water running).

Before we can begin the joint experiment/poem section in earnest, a review of poetic terms and devices would be helpful. Students will be asked to review their notes from the beginning of the poetry unit, and to refresh their memories regarding the following terms:

Science Objective: Students will make a terrarium to demonstrate how the water cycle works.

Lang/Lit Objective: Students will read and interpret a selection of poems that deal with water in its many forms.

Experiment: The class will return to the web where we will link up with the "Live from Earth and Mars" site, http://www-k12.atmos.washington.edu/k12/index.htmll. Students will observe the changes water goes through during its journey through the water cycle when they conduct this experiment entitled, "The Whole Water Cycle."

Upon completion of this experiment, students will be directed to read the following, taking notes for their notebook, discussing applicable terminology. In "Metamorphosis" by Carl Sandburg, water is asked if it remembers being ice, and ice if it remembers being water (8). "The Snowman's Lament," by Jack Prelutsky, begins with the snowman boasting, in very large print, about how handsome and tall he is. When the weather begins to turn warmer, and he begins to melt, the print becomes smaller and smaller until, like the snowman, it finally disappears ( 9). The imagery in Constancy Levy's "Icicles," and her use of metaphors in comparing icicles to "sharks' teeth, sleek frost fingers," (10) imbues these frozen wonders with new life. An example of a concrete poem, or a poem whose shape suggests its meaning, can be found in Jane Yolk’s "Icicle." The lines of the poem are arranged vertically to suggest the shape of the icicle ( 11). Because the students have already written poems about the water cycle in the Time Out section, we will proceed with the next experiment.

Science Objective: Students will be able to explain what occurs in this stage of the water cycle.

Lang/Lit Objective: Students will compose a lyric poem using descriptive words that involve the senses to describe a rainy day.

We will return to the website http://www-k12.atmos.washington.edu/k12/pilot/water_cycle/ precipitation.html.l.

Upon completion of the experiment students will be given the following assignment:

In lyric poetry, writers express their thoughts and feelings about a subject in a brief but musical way. Recall the sights and sounds, tastes and smells of a rainy day. Write a first draft of your poem of between eight and twelve lines, and then read it aloud to your rewrite partner. Ask him if you can make your descriptions more vivid. Then revise and write the final copy.

As a means of modeling this assignment, I will read "The Rain at Night," by Tu Fu, an ancient Chinese poet who begins his piece with the line, "The good rain knows when to fall." (12)

Science Objective: Students will produce a cloud in a bottle.

Lang/Lit Objective: Students will observe clouds in the sky and create metaphorical comparisons for them.

We will return to the aforementioned web site, substituting the word "condensation." Adult supervision is required for this experiment so I will probably enlist the aid of parent volunteers. After the experiment has been completed, I will review metaphors with the class. I will provide some examples. For instance, in "Water Jewels," Jane Yolen refers to weeds that "Wear rain jewels upon their leaves." In "Waterfall," she calls the waterfall a "rumbling, tumbling, cataracting fool," and in "Algae," she refers to "Pond scum, Water's ghetto, Primitive greengrocers." (13) Students will then be taken outside to a quiet spot where they may observe the clouds, and work on their metaphorical comparisons. Students like to share their completed works, but usually prefer to remain anonymous. Therefore, I read their poems to the class but only after they have given me permission to do so.

Science Objective: Students will make water evaporate and then answer a series of questions about what they have observed.

Lang/ Lit Objective: Students will write a series of couplets that explains where water from different places goes when it evaporates.

Return to the previous web site, but this time insert "evaporation." After finishing the experiment, direct students to recall that a couplet is a two-lined poem that rhymes. Ask them to work with a partner to brainstorm ideas about couplets that tell the stories of different ways water can be evaporated. Remind them to try to use imagery in their selections.

Five: Groundwater

Science Objective: Students will be able to explain how ground water moves through the soil and how it interacts with the surface water.

Lang/Lit Objective: Students will compose a Bio-poem using ground water as the subject.

We will switch to a new web site for this experiment, http://www.epa.gov/region01/students/ teacher/gndwater.html. This site is a teachers’ resource center sponsored by the Environmental Protection Agency. Entitled, "Deep Subjects-Wells and Groundwater," it includes a comprehensive background section, an excellent diagram of the groundwater system, an illustrated table of groundwater terms, an informative experiment that both demonstrates the movement of groundwater and shows its connection to the water cycle. The experiment concludes with a water maze activity that shows the paths water might take as it travels down into the ground and then to the water table.

Upon completion of this experiment students will be directed to compose a Bio-poem, a structured piece that attempts to display several aspects of a person’s character, using groundwater as the subject of the poem. They will use the poetic device, personification, in order to transfer animate qualities to the inanimate groundwater. The format is as follows:

First line- name of subject (Ground water)

second line - two adjectives that describe the subject

third line- Sister/Brother of______________

Who Fears_____________________

Who Loves______________________

Whose Greatest Dream is to____________________

Last line- Repeats name of subject (Ground water)

Science Objective: Students will discover ways in which their families can conserve water.

Lang/Lit Objective: Students will use the Water Conservation Tips page at the end of the experiment to design a conservation jingle which they will illustrate on posters.

For this last experiment, the class will return to the previous web site and click on "The Case of the Mysterious Renters." Students will become detectives as they sleuth their way through a mystery that involves math skills. They will use a questionnaire to determine how much water their family uses in one day. The last page offers water conservation tips.

Students will be directed to use the Water Conservation Tips page to create conservation jingles that rhyme and that can be illustrated on posters. Posters will be displayed upon completion and prizes will be awarded to the top three.

As a wrap-up to the unit, I will show the video "The Urban Explosion" from the Journey to Planet Earth series provided by KNME, Channel 5 and PBS. The accompanying teacher's guide lists the following objectives:

• describe the environmental problems-specifically air and water pollution-created by the rapid development of urban areas.
• identify some solutions for dealing with problems caused by uncontrolled urbanization.
• explain the importance of urban development plans in dealing with cities’ environmental problems.

After viewing the video and following the format for discussion, the class will participate in one of the suggested projects. We will invite a speaker from the local water utility to speak to the class. Before the speaker arrives, students will have prepared questions such as, "Where does our water come from?" "Where are our aquifers in Albuquerque?" "How far down do we need to drill before we hit the water table?" "Where is the waste from factories and plants released?" "How is our local sewage treated and where is it released?" "How long do we have before Albuquerque runs out of water?"

As a final poetry assignment, I will ask students to write a myth or a legend, in poetic form, about population growth and its effects on the environment. They will be encouraged to use information from the video they have just seen and from the notes they have taken throughout the unit as a starting point for their poem. They will also be encouraged to stretch the believability factor and aim for an exaggerated version, or hyperbole, of their ideas.

I will prepare a checklist for the students by which their "Water Dance Notebooks" will be evaluated. They will receive this handout at the beginning of the unit so they will be aware of my expectations.

1. Listing objectives for each activity.................. 5 pts.

2. Taking complete notes...................................... 10pts.

3. Completing each experiment............................ 30pts.

4. Completing each poetry assignment...................30pts.

5. Jingle / poster assignment.................................. 10pts.

6. Definitions completed........................................ 5pts.

7. Diagrams and charts included........................... 5pts.

8. Organization / neatness...................................... 5pts.

Students will be encouraged to display their final notebooks and to share their recommendations for future Water Dance projects.

1. Were activities motivational, and did students enjoy them? 2. Did I make the best use of classroom time? 3. Which activities took longer than expected? 4. Are there some activities that should be deleted or altered? 5. Were students able to feel a sense of their responsibility within their environment? 6. Will students continue to make connections among their various areas of study and apply their learning across disciplines?

The Rio Grande Nature Center, located off Candelaria Street in Albuquerque, affords excellent opportunities for hands-on activities relating to the water cycle. The Visitors’ Center has highly detailed displays that depict the city of Albuquerque in the middle of the active water cycle. Other displays entitled, "The Rio Grande Valley's Geologic Past," and "A Three-Dimensional View of the Rio Grande Rift in the Albuquerque Region," offer concise, well-detailed explanations of the geology behind the water supply in our area.

A brief history of the Rio Grande, as depicted in various displays, tells how the well-meaning flood control efforts, initiated earlier in this century, have had a devastating effect on river hydrology and ecology. Not the least of these effects is the disruption of the ancient connection between river water and groundwater in the adjacent floodplains. Students can see the channel, the jetty jacks and the levee for themselves when they enter the grounds of the center, and hopefully come to a better understanding of the complexity behind most water issues.

There is a real pump in the Visitors' Center that students can operate to draw up groundwater, and the accompanying explanations of the aquifer and the water table reinforce what the students have already learned.

In addition to providing an excellent field trip opportunity, the Rio Grande Nature Center is also a resource for a varied and interesting array of workshops for adults and children. Bosque Tracks is the center’s publication which features upcoming events such as "A Raindrop's Journey," a program for children which includes hands-on water cycle activities. Or for teachers, the center periodically offers workshops such as "Project WET," a nationally developed, K-12 environmental education program which utilizes water as its theme.

1. Merritts, DeWet and Menking, Environmental Geology, (New York, W.H. Freeman and Co., 1998), 45.

2. Merritts, DeWet and Menking, Environmental Geology, 33-38.

3. "Deep Subjects- Wells and Ground Water." p. c-1, website http://www.epa.gov/region01/students/teacher/gndwater.html

4. New Mexico Ground Water Quality/Environmental Protection Agency web site http://www.epa.gov/ow/resources/9698/nm.html

5. Seminar handout: "Hypothetical Distribution of Lithofacies in the Albuquerque Basin."

6. Manuel C. Molles, Jr., Ecology, (McGraw-Hill, 1999), 49-50; Merritts, DeWet and Menking, Environmental Geology, Chapter 8.

7. From Rainbows Are Made, ed. Lee Bennett Hopkins, (Harcourt, 1982).

8. Jack Prelutsky, It’s Snowing, It’s Snowing, (New York, Greenwillow, 1984), 44-47.

9. Constance Levy, A Crack in the Clouds, (New York, Margaret K. McElderry Books, 1998), 21.

10. Jane Yolan, Water Music, (Honesdale, PA, Wordsong Boyds Mills Press, 1995), unnumbered pages.

12. Tu Fu, Earth Poems, edited by Ivo Mosley, (Harper Collins, 1993), 266.

13. Yolan, Water Music

Fiarotta, Noel and Phyllis, Great Experiments with H2O, New York: Sterling Publishers,1995.
        Presents basic facts about water and includes simple experiments to illustrate various properties of water.

Gardner, Robert, Experimenting with Water, New York: F.Watts, 1993.
        Provides instructions for experiments and activities involving water.

Hooper, Meredith, The Drop in My Drink, New York: Viking, 1998.
        Presents the story of water on our planet.

Levy, Constance, A Crack in the Clouds, New York: Margaret K. McElderry Books,1998.
        A collection of thirty eight original poems about the natural world.

Prelutsky, Jack, It’s Snowing, It’s Snowing, New York: Greenwillow, 1984.
        A collection of poems about water in its many forms.

Rogasky, Barbara, Winter Poems, New York: Scholastic, 1994.
        A collection of winter poems ranging from late fall to early spring by such authors as Shakespeare, Poe, and Wallace Stevens.

Sandburg, Carl, "The Metamorphosis," in Rainbows Are Made, edited by Lee Bennett Hopkins, New York:Harcourt,1982.
        Seventy humorous and serious poems dealing with people, word play, everyday things and nature.

Seixas, Judith, S., Water: What it is, What it Does, New York: Greenwillow Books,1987.
        A simple introduction to water, describing its properties, uses and interactions with people and the environment.

Smith, David, The Water Cycle, New York: Wayland Publishers, Ltd., 1993.
        Describes the water cycle and the effects of water on the Earth.

Yolen, Jane, Water Music, Honesdale, PA: Wordsong Boyds Mills Press,1995.
        Original poems based on water in its various forms.

Chatton, Barbara, Using Poetry Across the Curriculum, Phoenix, Arizona: Oryx Press, 1993.
        A compilation of thematic units that use poetry across the curriculum. It is especially useful for its bibliography.

Chronic, Halka, Pages of Stone, # 3 The Desert Southwest, Seattle, Washington: Mountaineer Publishers, 1986.
        Part One offers a brief description of the geology behind the water cycle. Pictures, maps, diagrams and charts enhance the beginner’s understanding of basic           geological concepts.

Chronic, Halka, Roadside Geology of New Mexico, Missoula, Montana: Mountain Press Publishing Company, 1987.
        Part One offers a brief description of the geology behind the water cycle. Pictures, maps, diagrams and charts enhance the beginner’s understanding of basic           geological concepts.

Journey to the Planet Earth, video; distributed by PBS and local channel KNME.
        A compilation of lessons based upon the public television series of the same name, which explore the fragile relationship between people and the world they         inhabit.

Kelly, T. E.,"History of Water Use in the Greater Albuquerque Area," in Albuquerque Country II, New Mexico Geological Society 33rd Annual Field Conference,          1982.
        Discusses the historical impact of municipal systems on the area aquifers. Traces impacts from the first three hundred years through 1978 with predictions for          the year 2000.

Merritts, Dorothy, Andrew DeWet, and Kirsten Menking, Environmental Geology, New York: W.H. Freeman and Co., 1998.
        Presents an integrated, Earth system, interdisciplinary approach to environmental geosciences. Chapters one through five, and chapter eight are relative to this           unit.

Molles, Jr., Manuel, C., Ecology, McGraw- Hill, 1999.
        Provides an evolutionary perspective as the foundation for the discussion of basic concepts and applications in Ecology. Chapters one through three are relative          to this unit.

Pielou, E.C. Fresh Water, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.
        An exploration of the ways of water and the close connection between water and living forms. Informative chapters on the water cycle, ground water, and         rivers at work.

Rosner, Hy and Joan, Albuquerque's Environmental Story, Albuquerque, New Mexico: Published by the Albuquerque Public Schools, 1985.
        Pictures, charts and diagrams help make this a most useful resource for area geology, particularly as it relates to the water supply.

The Water Cycle:
small plastic cups, plastic wrap, soil and seeds

Precipitation:
a heat source to boil water, a pot in which to boil water, a Pyrex container with a handle, ice cubes, a pie pan or other container

Condensation:
A clean, clear 2 liter plastic bottle for every 3 students, a bow of wood matches for every three students, a thermometer for every bottle(available at fish stores), an eye dropper or other container for water.

Evaporation:
small dishes or jar lids ( two per group), tablespoons, water, light source (sun or lamp light), plastic wrap or lids to cover dishes.

Ground water:
markers, clear plastic cups, pea-sized, uncolored aquarium gravel, sand, water bottle spray nozzles (at hardware stores), pieces of nylon stockings or tights, cake pans, water, food coloring, unsweetened red Kool-Aid, paper cups with holes punched in the bottom.

Conservation:
a glass or clear plastic gallon jug of water, large piece of butcher paper, markers, pens, writing paper

Useful Web sites:
http://edcen.ehhs.cmich.edu/~kformsma/lesson_plan.html
http://www-k12.atmos.washington.edu/k12/pilot/water_cycle/teacherpage.html
http://www.montana.edu/wwwwet/journey.html
http://www.nwf.org/nwf/kids/cool/water3.html
http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/kids/wrdsrch.html
http://www.epa.gov/region01/students/teacher/gndwater.html