Tara Senieur's CU

Return to Justice & Authority Index Page

In the Name of Love:
Breaking the Pattern of Violence and Abuse

Tara Senieur

Academic Setting

I am designing this unit to use with the students I work with at New Futures School in Albuquerque, NM. These students are primarily at-risk, special education students between the ages of 13-20 years old, grade level mid-school to high school. The majority of the students I will be teaching the curriculum to will be parenting adolescents as opposed to pregnant adolescents. I will also use this unit with classes that are inclusive.

            Although there are some programs available in high schools for pregnant and parenting teens, New Futures Alternative School is the only school in Bernalillo County that exclusively serves adolescent girls that are either pregnant or have a child. In the early 1970’s a group of community activists in Albuquerque, New Mexico worked together to create a school that would serve the educational, health, and social service needs of Albuquerque’s pregnant teens.

            New Futures’ students come from all APS high schools, middle schools, and schools outside the district and come from a variety of cultural and ethnic groups. The majority of New Futures’ students are over age in grade. The consequences for over age students are higher dropout rates and delayed graduation. New Futures’ students are more likely to come from low income and single parent families. The student population is approximately 60% Hispanic, 17% Anglo, 6% Native American, 3% African American, and 9% other.

            A large majority of these adolescent girls come from a lower socioeconomic background; approximately 75% have a history of abuse and neglect, domestic violence, alcohol and drug abuse and mental health issues in their families.

Context and Background

Despite a recent decline in adolescent pregnancy rates, approximately one million girls become pregnant each year. The United States has the highest rates of teen pregnancy in the western industrial world (National Center for Health Statistics). Despite the decline in teen pregnancy rates nearly 4 in 10 young women become pregnant at least once before they reach the age of 20.

In order to break the pattern of violence and abuse, these young mothers must receive education, support, and modeling.   The adolescent is already grappling with tasks that include identity formation and exploration. Fulfilling these tasks not only means neglecting maternal duties but adolescents that are forced to select an identity too quickly may become identity foreclosed (Whitman et al 31). Adolescent mothers who enter into the parental role without having an opportunity to experience with other roles, thus, may not feel comfortable in the parenting role and are more likely to interact with their children in an inappropriate and sometimes damaging manner. Before an adolescent girl can take on adult roles, such as parenting, she must wrestle with tasks of adolescence which include obtaining an education, developing an identity, and moving away from home (Erikson 420). Adolescent mothers are more likely to live in poverty, be dependent on welfare, be single parents, and have more children. Due to the insidious nature of poverty, many children of adolescent mothers will experience delays in their development (Whitman ).

      Although middle-class teenagers get pregnant, it is mostly poor teens that have babies but do not go on to finish school, get married or get good jobs. Adolescent girls raised in severe poverty have grown up in damaged family situations where the basic developmental foundation is lacking (Musick 137).

Risk Factors

Teen parents carry their own set of risk factors. A study done by the Ounce of Prevention Fund (1987) showed that a large percentage of adolescents who become pregnant (62%) were preceded by experience of sexual abuse or rape (Vanstraten 15).

In addition, many come from homes where there is domestic violence, alcohol and drug abuse, poverty, and mental illness. Adolescents often bring excess emotional baggage with them as they adapt to their new role. Research suggests that as they deal with conflicts with their own children, unresolved issues from their own childhood take on added significance. Adolescent mothers have often experienced a higher rate of sexual abuse as children and young adults, which can lead to punitive parenting practices with their own children (Whitman et al 137). A variety of studies suggest that pregnant adolescents have poorly integrated personalities and low self-esteem (Whitman et al 37).

Childhood Trauma

To understand this population and at risk adolescents in general, it is important to understand the effects of childhood trauma. We all have experiences growing up, some positive, some negative. But what about those who have been through a set of life experiences during their early years that have left a mark upon them and the ways they feel about themselves? We are products of our past. Whether our experiences were mostly negative or positive will have a bearing on how and who we become. Some may have suffered actual abuse--physical, sexual, emotional, or mental--while others may have felt that they were rejected or unloved.

            The impact of abuse and neglect has been documented and studied over the last few years. A child who is loved and given stimulating experiences often turns out to be a bright and pleasant person, while an abused child often becomes an abuser and/or involved in the juvenile justice system (Perry 228). The data clearly shows the correlation between abuse and neglect and delinquency. In the “Cycle of Violence,” Cathy Spatz Widom indicates that children who were abused and neglected were 53% more likely to be arrested as juveniles, 38% more likely to be arrested as adults, 38% more likely to be arrested for a crime, and 77% more likely to be arrested if females (NIJ 4).

            Childhood is a dangerous time, during which children are dependent on adults to care for them. Those children who grow up in an abusive or violent home learn to internalize the modeling to which they are exposed. Studies have shown that children of abusive parents/caretakers carry the negative effects of early childhood and are three times more likely to express violence, become depressed and/or suicidal (Brown et al 1491). Another study showed that of all abused children, 30 % suffer chronic health problems, 30% display cognitive or language disorder, 50% have socio-emotional problems such as lowered self-esteem, an inability to trust, and frustration; 14% exhibit self mutilation or other self-destructive behaviors; 50% have attendance and misconduct problems at school, and 22% suffer from learning disabilities.

         The image we have of ourselves is formed at a very young age so it isn’t surprising that experts in the field have documented the relationship between past sexual abuse and teen pregnancy. A study by the Washington Alliance Concerned with School Age Parents from 1988-1992 surveyed 535 young women who became pregnant as teenagers. Of those surveyed 665 had experienced sexual victimization.            Sexual molestation occurred in 55% of the sample, with 54% of molestations by a family member. Rape occurred in 43% of the sample (WACSAP). An investigation link between sexual victimization and adolescent pregnancy found that sexual abuse increases the likelihood of early (14-16 years old) pregnancy (Musick 45).

            How does this affect an adolescent mother? The ability of adolescent abuse survivors to form healthy intimate relationships is seriously hampered (National Children’s Advocacy Center). A teen that has been sexually abused as a child is more likely to experience abuse in dating relationships and during pregnancy. The adolescent will suffer deficits in areas such as trust, self- esteem, efficacy, cognitive function, and depression. This places teen mothers at risk for insensitive and ineffective parenting and punitive and abusive practices. According to Bolton, 36% to 51% of all abused children are raised by adolescent mother (Whitman et al 104). These young mothers often feel powerless to protect their children from sexual abuse by others. If one can’t protect oneself from abuse how can one protect their child (VanStraten 16)?

The Early Years

The early years of development are critical when it comes to parenting. Positive and effective parenting and caregiving skills will promote early brain development in children 0-3 years of age. Good prenatal care, warm and loving attachment between child and caregivers, and positive stimulation is critical in a child’s development, which is why it is crucial to educate, support, and model parenting to young mothers.

            Erik Erikson, a German-born American psychoanalyst, developed a psychosocial theory of emotional development that looks at the impact of parents and society on personality development from childhood to adulthood. According to Erikson’s first stage-“Trust vs Mistrust”- (birth to 18 months) the infant learns whether the world he lives in can be trusted. If he’s hungry, will he be fed? If she’s wet, will she be changed? If an infant’s physical and emotional needs are met consistently and in a caring manner, then she learns that her caregiver can be counted on, and she will develop trust. If needs are not met, then fear is learned and trust is not.

            In Erikson’s second stage-“Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt”- (18 months to 3 years) the child begins to realize that he is a separate person with his own desires and abilities. He just wants to do things for himself, and without help. The toddler’s favorite word “no” is normal and only a bid for independence and autonomy. The problem at this stage is that some parents, especially those who are already struggling with their own issues, may not have the patience and may harshly criticize the child                 for accidents. This can be a difficult stage for adolescent mothers. If the child wets himself or spills something or says “NO,” the parent may punish them rather than understanding that this is normal development. If a toddler is punished (screamed at, put down, hit), then he may develop doubt about his own abilities.

Attachment and bonding is another critical process that affects the mother-child relationship and has long-term effects. Attachment is essential for healthy physical and emotional development and is the foundation for our ability to feel empathy, compassion, trust, and love. Bonding refers to a set of behaviors such as holding, rocking, gazing, singing, kissing and other nurturing behaviors that help lead to an attachment. If there are interruptions in the bonding cycle this may lead to Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD)-impairment of the child’ ability to form an attachment to the primary caregiver (Piedmont Attachment Center). RAD may occur due to abuse, neglect, severe/chronic illness, death, or sudden separation from the mother. Children with RAD suffer from an inability to form lasting loving relationships. They often fail to develop a conscience and do not trust. Left untreated, attachment disordered children grow into aloof, uncaring, and manipulative adults. Children without a conscience have no remorse and are usually the hardest core criminals in our justice system. Boys who experience attachment problems early in life are 3 times more likely to be violent (Levy & Orlans 120).

            Other factors that influence attachment is the “fit” between infant and caregiver. The child’s temperament can influence the bonding. If the infant is difficult or irritable he or she will have more difficulty developing a secure attachment. The caregiver’s behavior can also damage bonding. Critical and rejecting parents tend to have children that avoid emotional intimacy. Abusive parents tend to have children that withdraw from intimacy. A parent may be indifferent to the child due to depression, drug use, or other problems. The environment can be a major obstacle to attachment if the child is living in fear due to domestic violence, chaotic environment, or any sort of threat. How does abuse and neglect influence attachment? Bruce Perry states that the most common effect is that maltreated children are basically rejected. It is common in abusive families for rejection and abuse to be transgenerational. The neglectful parent was neglected as a child. Another problem is “parentification,” where the child takes on parental responsibilities. The child is treated like an adult and as a result may not participate in activities with other children. This is not uncommon with adolescent mothers where they may call their four-year-old their “best friend” or “my little man” (childtrauma 7).

Violence and the Traumatized Child

What goes wrong when children go bad? In 1997, Children’s Protective Services investigated two million reports alleging abuse of almost three million children. This represents about 4 % of all children in the United States (National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse). The rise in child abuse has been accompanied by a parallel rise in violence in the schools. Children who grow up in a home that is violent and abusive must learn and grow despite a persistent sense of threat. These children adapt to this atmosphere of fear, which can alter the development of the child’s brain (Perry 223). The amygdala is the precise area of the brain that is most susceptible to damage by physical abuse to children (Berger). As the child’s brain matures, explains Berger, connections between the cognitive areas of the brain begin to monitor the impulses generated by the amygdala. Abuse leads directly to physical damage to the brain. Neglect both directly and indirectly contributes to the child’s lack of development. The link between abuse and neglect that leads to children being unable to deal with their emotions is clear (Starr & Wolfe 50). The tendency for later violent behavior is associated with abuse and neglect. The symptoms a child develops following exposure to violence can vary depending on the character, frequency, pattern, and intensity of the violence, the adaptive style of child, and presence of important factors such as a stable safe and supportive home.

Children that are raised with persisting violence are much more likely to be violent. Children look to parents to answer questions about what’s going on. When the answer is brutality and abuse, the child accepts these ways of dealing with others as the norm, and adopts this behavior at a basic level. When “what’s going on” is neglect, the child has nothing from which to build the concept of empathy (Starr & Wolfe 263). Both abusive behavior and lack of empathy contribute later to adopting violent acts as a way of socially interacting. In addition Starr and Wolfe also found that children of abusive parents carry the negative effects of early childhood into school and become socially incompetent (77). Most disturbing is the fact that these parents continue to abuse, and in fact become more abusive as the child grows. Jocelyn Brown conducted a study that followed children for seventeen years that were characterized as maltreated and found that they were three times more likely to express violence and become depressed or suicidal than children who were not mistreated (1491).

            Families of violent children are often aggressive; violent, abusive, have behavior problems, weak family bonding, little warmth, and are often into crime (Crespi & Rigazio-DiGilio 353). Dr. Cathy Spatz Widom has been studying the abused and neglected. The conclusion was that severe abuse and neglect are foretelling of violent offending. If the adults in these children's lives solve problems in a violent manner, that becomes the standard for predictable behavior (NIJ 2). Statistically 79% of violent children have witnessed violence between their parents/caregivers and that violent children are four times more likely to come from homes with parental violence (Lewis 390). Sexual abuse is devastating for a child. Some portion of sexual abused children will become violent perpetrators.

Anger

Everyone deals with anger in one-way or another. Anger is a learned response, usually from our parents. The purpose of anger is to avoid anxiety or protect oneself. As a result of painful childhoods, some people learn to turn anger against themselves, others may externalize anger and violate those around them. If one does not learn ways to deal with their anger, it is often taken out on the one closest to us, which is often a family member. In her book, Guilty By Reason of Insanity Dorothy Lewis studied juvenile delinquents imprisoned for violence and found that physical trauma corresponds directly to increasingly violent behavior. Angry and abusive parents show their children how to act and respond.

            Teen mothers are more likely to exhibit angry and punitive parenting if they don’t have social support. Abuse and violence from their own childhood leads to unresolved anger and rage. It is often difficult for these young girls to even acknowledge that they even have these feelings. In a severely dysfunctional family, children repress these feelings in order to survive. By adulthood anger has been under such control for so long that the individual is often unable to feel it at all.

Learning About Love

Researchers have suggested that adolescent mothers are more apt to become involved in abusive relationships due to few support systems, socioeconomic stress, and psychological dependence on relationships with men (Musick 173). How do these teens learn about love? The adolescent’s sense of self develops at a very early age. Her sense of self in relation to males is the intense representation of her past experiences with men and her mother’s roles and relationships with men. If she experienced abuse, especially sexual abuse, it will shape her deepest sense of who she is and what she can do. It will affect her capacity to care for herself and her children. She will learn shame, fear, and guilt. She will be vulnerable to violent relationships.

            In her book Young, Poor and Pregnant, Judith Musick reports that a primary characteristic shared by sexually victimized mothers was a psychological neediness and emotional deprivation beginning early in their lives. This neediness leaves the adolescent mother inappropriately motivated and vulnerable to pleasing males and sexual exploitation. Young women may not be able to distinguish between loving behavior and abusive behavior if they have grown up in households where abuse has been called love. If they lack caring in their lives, they may be ready to settle for any relationship, even if the so-called love comes in the form of jealousy, possessiveness, and control.

Implementation

This unit is designed to be used each semester, meeting once a week for 7 weeks. Each session is approximately 60-90 minutes but can be minimized or maximized.

The following standards and benchmarks will be addressed in this curriculum:

Content Standards-Health Education

Standard 6: Students will demonstrate the ability to use interpersonal communication skills to enhance health.

Benchmark 19: 9-12: demonstrate positive ways to express needs, wants and feelings.

Benchmark 20: 9-12: demonstrate ways to communicate care , consideration and respect of self and others

Benchmark 21: 9-12: demonstrate strategies for solving interpersonal conflicts without harming self or others

Benchmark 22: 9-12: demonstrate refusal, negotiation, and collaboration skills to avoid potentially harmful situations.

Week One

Session 1:    “What is Abuse”

Objectives:

�         to learn about the different types of abuse

�         to understand the cycle of abuse

Materials:
Handout: “What is Abuse”
Handout: “Cycle of Violence”

Outline:
1.Students will be asked to form a circle. It will be explained to them that we will be meeting one time a week for the semester and will be learning about the abuse and cycles of abuse and how patterns can change in order to be the best we can as a parent. Students will be given folders to keep all their handouts and information in.

2. Group guidelines will be written on a large poster board as follows and we will go over them:

�         Everyone gets a chance to talk

�         One person talks at a time

�         It’s ok to say what you feel

�         No one has to talk

�         Everyone has to listen

�         No one puts anyone else down

�         Personal sharing stays here and is not talked about outside this session

3. Questions around issues of guidelines

�         How do you know when someone is putting you down?

�         What are some ways can others be disrespectful without saying anything?

�         How do you know when someone is listening to you?

4.Distribute handout “What Is Abuse” This handout will describe the different types of abuse-physical, emotional, sexual abuse. (see Figure. 1)

Discussion will take place and questions will be asked to students such as :

�         Has anyone ever known anyone or themselves who has experienced any of these types of abuse? (depending on the comfort and personalities in the group, there may be disclosure or very minimal)

�         What hurt the most?

5.Distribute handout on Cycle of Violence. (copies available through-www.domesticviolence.org/cycle.html) This will examine the three major phases: tension building; explosion, and the honeymoon period. Discussion will follow.

6.Students will journal on their thoughts and feelings about the different types of abuse, and their experiences.
* At the end of session students will be encouraged to keep handouts and place in their folders.

Week Two
Session 2:    “Family Roles and Abuse: Dysfunctional Childhood Legacy”

Objectives:

�         To examine how roles of individual family members are intrinsic in an abusive family

�         To look at how abuse can perpetuate from generation to generation

�         To help students understand the factors involved growing up in a dysfunctional family

Outline:

1. Review group rules. If several students were absent, last weeks information may be       reviewed briefly

2. Discuss term “dysfunctional family”

Family dysfunction can be any condition that interferes with healthy family functioning. Problems in dysfunctional families tend to be chronic and children do not consistently get their needs met. Negative patterns of parental behavior tend to be dominant in their children’s lives. There are many types of dysfunction in families. Some parents under-function, leaving their children to fend for themselves. Some parents never allow their children to grow up and be on their own. Others may be inconsistent or violate basic boundaries.

3. Discussion around what we have learned as children from the role models we had growing up in abusive families, we incorporate the messages we received from our caregiver’s behavior and role modeling into our relationship with ourselves. At the core of our being is a little child who feels unworthy and unlovable. Children learn who they are as emotional beings from the modeling they receive.

4. Discussion of some examples of patterns that frequently occur in dysfunctional families:

�         Parent/caregiver(s) may have addictions (drugs alcohol, promiscuity, gambling)

�         Parent/caregiver(s) use threats or violence as a means of control/discipline

�         Parent/caregiver exploit the children (abuse, treat as possessions)

�         Parent/caregiver unable to provide physical/emotional care

5. Discussion of family rules:
Violence represents a multigenerational transmission of learned behavior patterns used to express how we feel. Breaking the chain of violence is not about shaming our parents but about healing the hurt inside of us. Go over “Seven Family Rules” (see Pathways to Peace by Victor LaCerva-p.49)

Discussion around how understanding these in our own family can help uncover old patterns of destruction.

6. Students will journal about their experiences growing up, how they were disciplined, shown love, etc.

Questions to encourage discussion:

�         What are some things that can happen in a dysfunctional family?

�         How were some of you wounded as a child?

�         How were you disciplined?

�         How did your parent/caregiver show you love?

Week Three

Session 3: “Impact of Abuse and its Effect on Children”

Objectives:

�         To look at how the parenting we received can impact how we parent our children

�         To identify types of learned behavior from a dysfunctional childhood (anger, expressing emotion, etc.)

�         To learn about the impact abuse has on children

Materials:

�         Video “Stolen Childhood” (NM Dept. of Health- 14:20 min)

�         Handouts—“Effects on Children Who Witness Domestic Violence” (see Figures 1,2,3)

Outline:

1. Show video

2. Discussion on how we think our experiences have affected how we parent our children

3. Handouts figure 1,2,3-Students will take turns reading and group will discuss.

4. Students will journal on their reaction to the film and how they feel domestic violence has affected them.

Week Four

Session 4: “Understanding a Child’s Development and Temperament”

Objectives:

�         To educate students about children’s developmental phases

�         To understand temperamental traits of a child

�         To learn parenting strategies during stressful moments

Materials:

�         Handout on child developmental milestones

�         Handout on “The Nine Temperament Traits”

�         Handout on Erickson’s first two stages of development

�         Handout on Behaviors During Normal Stages of Development

Outline:

1. Distribute handout on a child’s developmental milestones (copies available through website: http://www.babyworld.com)

2. Distribute handout on Erikson’s first two stages of development (copies available through website: http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Ranch/2200/

3. Distribute handout of Behaviors during Normal Stages of Development that cause children to be at higher risk for abuse. (see Figure 5).

4. Distribute handout on Temperament Traits (copies available through website: http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/temperament_and_your_child.htm)

5. Students will journal on the developmental stage their child is at and temperament style and why it is important to understand this.

Questions:

1. What is one of the most difficult behaviors you are dealing with?

2. What kind of temperament do you see in your child?

Week Five

Session 5: “Love Shouldn’t Hurt Like This!”

Objectives:

�         To understand the different ways in which we define love

�         To look at our relationships and how this affects our children

�         To learn about relationships that hurt

�         To learn about the effects of abuse on women

Materials:

�         Handout on Characteristics of Abusive Men

�         Handout on the Effects of Abuse on Women

Outline:

1.      Group will begin with a guest speaker from the Women’s Resource Center for Domestic Violence.

2.      Following speaker, handout will be distributed “Domestic Abuse: Impacting the Abused Woman” (see Figure 6)

3.      Distribute handout “Characteristics of an Abuser” ( see Figure 7)

4.      Discussion around personal experiences, how does this affect our children?

5.      Have students journal about their definition of love.

Week Six:

Session 6: “Understanding Anger”

Objectives:

�         To understand what anger is

�         To develop awareness of one’s own anger

�         To learn ways to express anger appropriately

Materials:
Handout: “What is anger….”
Handout: “How was anger expressed in my family”
Handout:   “Understanding my Anger”

Outline:

1.Distribute and discuss handout “What is Anger” (see website http://www.apa.org/pubinfo/anger.html)

2.Distribute handout” How was Anger Expressed in My Family” (Figure 8 ) Students will be asked to complete questionnaire and share if they feel comfortable. Discussion around the different ways we have experienced anger growing up.

3.Distribute handout “Understanding My Anger” (Figure 9 ) Students will spend some time answering these questions or (to take home and complete to discuss next week)

4.Discussion around strategies in expressing anger in healthy ways. (breathing, relaxation techniques, problem solving, thinking patterns, etc.-see website in #1). Also see bibliography-How to Control My Anger(Ron Potter-Efron).

5.Students will journal what their children do that makes them the angriest. What physical changes occur when they become angry such as clenching fists, sweating, stomachache, etc.

Week Seven:

Session 7: Riding in Cars with Boys

Objectives:

�         To look at how one young girl dealt with her pregnancy and parenting.

Materials:

* Video “Riding in Cars with Boys” 121 min. (if there is not enough time to complete video, group may meet briefly next week)

Outline:
1.Discussion around how the young girl becoming pregnant at age 15 affected her and her child’s life.
2. Students will journal about the similarities between their lives and the teen mother’s life in the movie.

Questions:
1. What do you think that the teen mom in the movie should or could have done differently when she became pregnant?

2. Do you think she made the right decision by marrying the baby’s dad even though she told him that he was not the one for her?

3. What are some parenting mistakes that you recognized? What would you have done differently?

Documentation

Bibliography

Berger, Kathleen. The Developing Person. New York: Worth Publishing, 2000.

Black, Claudia. It Will Never Happen To Me. Denver: Mac, 1981.

Brown, Jocelyn, MD, Cohen, Patrica PhD., Johnson, Jeffrey, PhD. Smailes, Elizabeth m phil.”Child Abuse and Neglect: Specificity of Effects on Adolescents and Young Adults Depression and Suicidality.” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38 (1999). 1490-1496.

Browne, A. and Finkelhor, D. “Impact of Child Sexual Abuse:” Psychological Bulletin     (1986) 99:66-77.

Boyer, Debra. “Adolescent Pregnancy: the Role of Sexual Abuse.” NRCCSA News 4 (10). 2-8.

Boyer, Debra & Fine, David. “Sexual Abuse as a Factor in Adolescent Pregnancy and Child Maltreatment.” Family Planning Perspectives 24 (1). 4-11.

Capacchione, Lucia. The Creative Journal for Teens. North Hollywood:Newcastle Publishing, 1992.

Carey, William & McDevitt, Sean. Coping with Children’s Temperament. New York:Basic Books, 1995.

Crespi, Tony & Rigazio-DiGilio, Sandra. “Adolescent Homicide and Family Pathology: Implication for Research and Treatment with Adolescence,” 15 (1996):p. 353.

Cytrn, Leon. and Mcknew, Donald. Growing Up Sad: Childhood Depression and its              Treatment. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1996.

Dash, Leon. When Children Want Children: The Urban Crisis of Teenage Child Rearing. New York: William Morrow & Co., Inc., 1989.

Efron-Potter, Ron. How to Control Your Anger (Before It Controls You). Center City:Hazelton, 1998.

Erikson, Erik. “Youth and the Lifecycle.” Children (7) 1960.

Erikson, Erik. Children and Society. New York: Norton, 1963.

Finkelhor, D. Early and Long Term Effects of Child Sexual Abuse. Professional Psychology (1990) 21: 325-30.

Fiscella, K et al. “Does Child Abuse Predict Adolescent Pregnancy?” Pediatrics 101 (4)620-624.

Huetter, Rebekah. In Search of My Heart. Albuquerque:Words of Hope, 1998.

In Harm’s Way: Domestic Violence and Child Maltreatment. National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse. 2002. www.calib.com/nccanch/pubs/otherpubs/harmsway.cfm

LaCerva, Victor Pathways to Peace: Forty Steps to a Less Violent America. Tesuque: Heartsongs Pub., 1996.

Leadbeater, Bonnie. & Niobe Way. Growing Up Fast: Transitions to Early Adulthood of Inner-City Adolescent Mothers. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2001.

Lerner, Harriet. Dance of Anger. New York: Harper & Row, 1986.

Lewis, Dorothy “From Abuse to Violence: Psychopysiological Consequences of Maltreatment.” Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 31 (3). 1990.

Levy, Terry. & Orlans, Michael. Attachment Trauma and Healing. Washington D.C.: League of American Press, 1998.

Lewis, Dorothy. Guilty by Reason of Insanity: A Psychiatrist Explores the Minds of Killers. New York: Fawcett Columbine, 1998.

Markham, Ursula. Childhood Trauma. Rockport: Element Books Unlimited, 1998.

Musick, Judith. Young, Poor, and Pregnant: The Psychology of Teenage Motherhood. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993.

Peck, Scott. The Road Less Traveled. Cutchogue: Buccaneer Books, 1978.

Perry, Bruce. “Bonding and Attachment in Maltreated Children.” Child Trauma Academy. 2001. Caregiver Education Series. 4.July 2001<http://www.childtrauma.org/ >

Perry, Bruce. Incubated in Terror: Neurodevelopmental Factors in the Cycle of Violence. New York: Guiford Press, 1997.

Perry, Bruce. The Neurodevelopmental Impact of Violence in Childhood. Washington D.C.: Psychiatric Press, 2001.

Perry, Bruce. Maltreated Children: Experience, Brain Development and the Next Generation. New York: W. Norton, 2001.

Powers, Ron. Tom and Huck Don’t Live Here Anymore: Childhood and Murder in the Heart of America. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001.

Sharff, Jagna Wojcicka. King Kong on 4^th Street: Families and the Violence of Poverty on the Lower East Side, Boulder: Westview Press, 1998.

Schaeffer, Brenda. Is It Love or Is It addiction?

Smith, Lawrence. “Bonding and Attachment: When it Goes Awry.” Washington Parent Magazine. 2001.http://www.washingtonparent.com/

Starr, Raymond. & Wolfe, David. The Effects of Child Abuse and Neglect. New York: Guiford Press, 1991.

“Teen Birth Rates Decline in All States During 1990’s.” National Center for Health Statistics. 2002. <http://www.NCHS.com.

VanStraten, Paula. “Sexual Abuse, Trauma and Adolescent Pregnancy.” National Organization on Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenting, 21 (2001): 15-18.

What is Reactive Attachment Disorder(RAD)? The Piedmont Attachment Center, Inc. www.attachtherapy.com/RAD.htm

Whitman, Thomas; Borkowski, John; Keogh, Deborah & Weed, Keri. Interwoven Lives: Adolescent Mothers and Their Children. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Association, Inc., 2001.

Widom, Cathy Spatz. “The Cycle of Violence.” National Institute of Justice. 1992: 1-5.



                                                                                                  F. 8

HOW WAS OR IS ANGER EXPRESSED IN MY FAMILY?

Mom (or caregiver)

Dad

Siblings

Grandparents

Important Others

When I get angry I usually.

F.9

UNDERSTANDING MY ANGER

1. Who or what makes me angry?

2. When do I get angry?

3. What makes me feel angry most often?

4. Do I stay angry for a long time?

5. What helps me to stop being angry?

6. Does my anger help me get what I want?