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Dialects and Idioms as Related to the Regions of the United States

Sue B. Johnson

Academic Setting

This unit was designed for use in a fourth grade class at Emerson Elementary School in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Emerson is a large school with 695 students. Most of the students at Emerson are second language learners, coming from a range of languages and cultures, including Hispanic, Native American, Asian, along with a few African Americans and a few Anglos. The area around the school is very densely populated and most of the students live close enough to walk to school. There is a high turnover of students at the beginning of each year and during the school year.

            The main goal of this unit of study is to acquaint students with dialects and idioms of the regions of the United States. Another goal is to help them in their learning and understanding of English. Also, I want students to increase their appreciation of the differences and variation in language usage. This unit will integrate social studies standards and language arts standards.

Context and Background

Dialects

Every culture has a language or languages and every language has dialects. A dialect is a way a language is spoken in a particular place or among a particular group of people (Scholastic 146). It is important to note that like language, dialects continually change. In any particular language there is considerable variation (Finnegan 370). This variation includes word choice and pronunciation. Whether a region is large or small, there is variation in the way the people speak. Variations within a language, or dialects, may be affected by geography, such as mountains, rivers, oceans, or relative isolation due to other geographic forms. The more isolated a place is, the stronger the dialect in that area will be. An excellent example of this geographical isolation and language dialect is Gullah, a dialect of Black English. Gullah is spoken on the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina. Sullivan Island, opposite the main harbor in Charleston, was called the "Ellis Island for Blacks" (McCrum 194). Blacks were brought here from Africa and were kept on the islands before being sent to plantations. The Blacks lived self-sufficient lives, growing crops and fishing, and their language was also self-contained. Gullah has been preserved in this area to this day and as many as a quarter of a million people still speak it. The grammar of Gullah comes from Africa, and the vocabulary is derived predominantly from English (Hendrickson 139). As McCrum describes Gullah, it is probably closer than any other American variety of Black English to the original creole English of the New World, and the lost pidgin English of the slave ships (196).

            Because of the case of travel and the ubiquity of media one might predict that dialects would disappear and all forms of speaking would converge and become the same. This may not happen to the degree one would think, probably because language remains as it is between people who commonly interact with one another (Finnegan 371). As travel is short lived, or temporary, most interactions of communication are with those we are in contact with daily. Also, the enormous number of immigrants coming to the United States is bound to have an affect on English language and dialects. This is the case in the West and Midwest regions of the United States. These areas were settled by people from many parts of the American colonies and territories who spoke a variety of languages as well as regional dialects. Also, areas were settled by many immigrants from foreign countries who spoke no English at all. Most likely, pronunciation followed the direction of schoolteachers in sounding out words by syllables (Hendrickson 22).

            The difference between dialect and language has caused some degree of controversy. Finnegan describes the two well:

                        A language can be thought of as a collection of dialects that are
                        usually related to one another historically and are similar to one
                  another structurally and lexically; dialects are used by different
                        social groups who choose to say that they are speakers of the
                        same language (371).

He refers to examples like the Romance languages as compared to Chinese. The Romance languages came from differences of Latin spoken in various parts of the Roman Empire. In time these dialects became Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Rumanian, which today are generally considered separate languages. The opposite is the case with Chinese. Mandarin and Cantonese are two major dialects of Chinese, but they are both considered by some to be dialects of Chinese (although linguists tend to think of Mandarin and Cantonese as separate languages). A good example of the changing nature of the language/dialect issue is Serbo-Croatian. In 1990, Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian were considered to be dialects of Serbo-Croatian. By 1997, however, many more people regard them as distinct languages (Lecture 19). Political factors can be very influential in the perception of language vs. dialect. The above examples give rise to the idea that language strongly identifies people in certain ways, including identification with social groups, ethnic groups, and religious and nationalistic attitudes (Finnegan 373).

            Language strongly identifies individuals because language defines who you are. Most people speak differently depending on the situation or environment they are in. For instance, when people are in a formal situation or environment, their language is more standard. When they are at home with family and friends, people often go back to their original language or dialect. Thus it is appropriate to think of a language as a collection of variable forms that are selected according to matters of group identity, geographic location, or other sociological reasons, and English is no exception. An interesting question is where these variable forms came from, and the answer is to be found in the history of the language. The story of the English language includes invasions of peoples and cultural revolution. English, in its earliest form, was brought to Britain by Germanic tribes, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. Next it was influenced by Latin and Greek and subtly enriched by the Danes, and finally transformed by the French-speaking Normans (McCrum 33). English is from the Indo-European language family, and is based mainly on Anglo-Saxon. English has had a colorful history influenced by many historical events. The history of English is divided into three main stages, Old English (also called the English of the Anglo-Saxons) 450 - 1100, Middle English 1100 - 1500, and Modern English (called English) 1500 to the present. There were distinct things that happened during these years that influenced English.

            During the Old English era, the Pope sent Augustine to England to establish monasteries and to convert people to Christianity in ad 597 (Brook 18). Because Latin was the language of the church, it had a great influence on Old English. Roughly between 850 and 1050 the Danes (also called Norsemen) led the Viking invasions. They conquered northern France and England. The Vikings intermarried with the Anglo-Saxons and left their influence of new concepts and words on the English language. When Edward the Confessor, a Saxon, became king in 1066, William, Duke of Normandy, challenged his claim to the throne. William felt he should be king because of family connections and promises made to him. At the Battle of Hastings, William and the Normans defeated the Anglo-Saxons and he became king. For the next several hundred years, Old English became the language of the common people. Although Old English was very different from our language today, we still use many of its words, such as at, brother, but, eat, man, sleep, and others (Brook 16).

            The next stage of the history of English was called Middle English which was from 1100 to 1500. This era included the Renaissance (1300-1600) which was a time when vast knowledge of ancient Rome and Greece was recovered. Latin greatly influenced the development of English during the Renaissance. Ten to twelve thousand words were added to English at this time because of the recovery of knowledge in Rome and Greece (Brook 23). French, Latin, and Greek words were added to English. English was taught in schools and it became the language of the law courts.

            The third stage is Modern English dating from 1500 to the present. Developments during this time period include the Great Vowel Shift, which changed the pronunciation of long vowels. For example, in Middle English, go rhymed with law and good rhymed with rode (Brook 29). It is not known why this happened. Also during this period spelling became more uniform with the advent of printing. So, we can see that language is affected by geography, conflict, and religion.

            After English had prominence in England, it spread to many other countries. When England was establishing colonies all over the world, the English language automatically spread. Wherever English explorers, traders or colonists went, they took their language and native words were added. It was said that the "sun never set on the British Empire" because England's empire was on so many continents (Brook 34). Because of the influences of many peoples over a long period of time on English, it is a living, changing language with much variation.

Why study dialects?

All of us are fascinated by the differences in each other and especially in the way people talk. Differences in language are very apparent because we are exposed to language daily. It is favorable to develop a respect for the wide varieties of English. In our modern era of travel, respect of language variation is necessary because we come in contact with people more than ever before. It is good for students to increase their awareness of language and dialect, not to make them conscientious (of themselves), but to encourage them to increase their confidence in language understanding and use. Learning about dialects should carry with it the notion that they add variety and interest to language. It is important to appreciate that dialects are not inferior English, but an alternate way of expressing ourselves. A function of dialect use is to give the user a sense of belonging to a group. The degree to which this is important varies from person to person.

            As was mentioned above, language use is linked to social identity (Hazen 1). Social identity is personal to everyone. Social identity is so deeply rooted in our existence that we may easily take it for granted, unless it is attacked or threatened. It is extremely important to keep in mind that no dialect is better structurally than another (Hazen 1). Criticizing or making fun of a person's speech, or dialect, can be a very demeaning act. Hazen contends that people may be less likely to make judgments about others' dialects if they had a better understanding of how language works (Hazen 1). He recommends active learning about language to show that language variation is a natural phenomenon. Since language is our basic way of communicating, it is essential to understand human communication and language. By studying language variation, students are better able to understand the dynamics of language and its role in society (Hazen 5). Without this understanding, it is easy to make assumptions about people. Judgments can be obvious or subtle, but the point is that it is far better to appreciate variations as different rather than better or worse. Reed sheds light on this aspect and says that when we hear someone pronounce a word differently from the standard pronunciation, for example, holp instead of help, we might be surprised to find that the variation was once the "accepted" way of pronunciation (Reed 5). We can see that although it is a fact that language changes, we need to remember that change is not better or worse, but just change.

Major dialect regions

The opinion of the number of dialect regions in the United States varies. Metcalf describes a continuum, from two main dialects, North and South, to the other extreme of saying that no two people speak alike (Metcalf vii). For the purposes of this paper, we will choose ground somewhere in the middle, by assuming three main dialect regions of the United States: the New England Dialect, the Southern Dialect, and the General American Dialect (Hendrickson 17). The New England Dialect includes Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island and the east side of New York. The Southern Dialect includes Kentucky, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, North and South Carolina, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, Arkansas, southern Missouri, part of Oklahoma and the east side of Texas. The General American Dialect includes the rest of the states. It must be noted that although finer gradation of dialects can be made, for practical purposes, we will study these three. Even though these are the main dialects, it must be noted that regional differences exist in all parts of the United States (Hendrickson 21). At this point I must give some specific examples of regional differences in language and dialect. In the state of Iowa, we say pop instead of soda to refer to a cold beverage. The distinction between dinner and supper has undoubtedly caused some confusion. Supper is the evening meal and dinner is the noon meal. Iowans use a pail rather than a bucket. You keep you money in a billfold, not a wallet, and you sit on a davenport, rather than a couch or sofa. After supper, you might want to sit outside on the porch. If you were from the South, you would sit on the veranda.

            The Southern Dialect is the largest dialect. The General American dialect, which covers the midwest and western United States, is considered an accent, but it doesn't tell where a person is from. This is in comparison to the New England and Southern dialects which do indicate where the speaker is from. It is often said that the General American dialect is the language used to sound educated, professional and businesslike. It is also called neutral speech (Metcalf x). The General American dialect is identified based on a standard pronunciation.

            One reason we have dialects is because the English language that was brought to America was not all the same. People who settled in different areas brought their dialect with them. When defining the boundaries of each of the main regional dialects, we need to keep in mind that the line of demarcation is very fluid. This means that the dialects change gradually from one location to another.

            Dialectology is the study of dialects. Salvucci summarizes the field studies in dialectology of this century:

the Linguistic Atlas fieldwork began under the direction of Hans
Kurath in the 1930s; the informal but extensive personal observations
of Charles Thomas in the 1940s; the DARE fieldwork of the 1960s
under Frederic Cassidy; and the Phonological Atlas fieldwork of
William Labov during the 1990s (Salvucci 1).

The study of dialects is ongoing because of the nature of language to continually change and because there is still much to discover as methodologies and research paradigms emerge.

            The South is the home of American English and the Southern dialect is the most well-known variety of American English (Metcalf 1). When the South was settled, the people who came there were from different parts of England and they spoke differently. The evolution of language became evident with the next generation. The most distinguishable mark of the Southern dialect is the "ah" sound. For example, Ah'm fahn, for I'm fine. Another identifying feature of Southern dialect is the i sound, as in tin (ten) and pin (pen). Also, the Southern dialect often drops the "r" sound after vowels, for example, fah (far). The word y'all (you all) is very commonly used in the south. Metcalf describes its origin as a matter of necessity in distinguishing between singular and plural (Metcalf 14). In the south, the use of y'all refers to more than one person.

            Three patterns of pronunciation distinguish New England dialect from the rest of the country (Metcalf 64). They are the dropped "r" as in fohk (fork), and kay-uh (care). The second item is the broad a, such as in the phrase pahk the cah in Hahvahd Yahd. The New England short o is the third distinguishing pronunciation. Words like coat, road, and home become cut, rud, and hum. This third identifying feature is not as prevalent as it once was. It needs to be pointed out that the different dialects include a variety of words and phrases peculiar to the region. These are too numerous to include.

Idioms

Expressions, or idioms, are used in every language. An idiom is a commonly used expression or phrase that means something different from what it appears to mean (Scholastic 261). Idioms make up a significant part of our language (Everaert 1), and therefore, our understanding and use of language will benefit from our study of idioms and their meanings. It is evident that idioms are significant in language because of the prolific number of dictionaries and books dedicated to the meanings of idioms. The English language has many ways to represent a thought or idea and idioms are a significant form of expression. The meaning of an idiom cannot be transferred to the use of similar words. We could say there are no synonyms in idioms (referring only to word exchanges, because there certainly are idioms that have similar meanings). For example, the meaning in "giving someone the cold shoulder" cannot be transferred by saying "giving someone the cool arm." Because of this "non-transference" of meaning, all idioms must be learned by themselves. This seems to make sense to our brain though, as it never occurred to me to assign the meaning to a new set of similar words.

            The important aspect of an idiom is its function. The main function of idioms is that the meaning someone wants to use in their story or description is best depicted with an idiom. Idioms have clear, brief meanings. Also, idioms add color and flavor to language, to both the listener and the speaker. Everyone loves a good story, and idioms, like similes, metaphors, and analogies make a good story better. Cacciari speaks of the use of idioms as figurative language, which plays an important function in the cognitive structure, or comprehension, of abstract concepts (43). This is interesting and significant in the study of idioms because originally, the meanings of many idioms were based on literal meanings. The words in most idioms do give us a vague description of what the meaning is. For example, to "put on your thinking cap" does have something to do with your brain and thinking. However, idioms vary in how much you can deduce its meaning from its composite parts. To illustrate, "tickled to death" has the exact opposite meaning to what the words seem to say. So, it is difficult to make too many assumptions about the meaning of idioms. An idiom that would fall in between these two examples in terms of semantic clarity is to "let the cat out of the bag." "Letting the cat out of the bag" has nothing to do with a cat or a bag, but it does mean to let something go (secret information) (Terban Introduction).

Why study idioms?

Idioms are commonly used in language and conversation. Studying idioms gives a person a better understanding of a language as well as increasing a person's confidence in reading. It also increases their reading fluency and vocabulary. Gibbs contends that people are not considered competent speakers of a language until they master a language's use of idioms (97). Idioms are language expressions that stand for something else. Like dialects, every language uses idioms and there are thousands of them. We use them so prevalently that we often do not realize how ubiquitous they are. Idioms can be very confusing to those learning a language because they cannot be taken literally. In order to understand the use of an idiom, a person must know its hidden meaning and memorize it rote. Using idioms to describe a thought creates a picture in the mind of the listener. This can be very helpful in their understanding of the thought. Idioms can be a fun, comical way of expressing a thought or idea. They are used to get a message across and the use of humor can serve to express a sensitive matter without being rude.

            Idioms have come from many different places. Each one has a unique background. For example, the idiom "handwriting on the wall" originated in the Old Testament of the Bible. It means when you can see signs that misfortune is coming. It was from a vision the King of Babylonia had where he saw a mysterious message written on the palace wall. "Hanging by a thread" is from a 5th century BC myth about a king who looked up and saw a sword hanging by a thread. The meaning of this idiom now means any risky situation. "Quiet as a mouse" is a simile from the 1500s. Several idioms are originally from Aesop, such as "a bull in a china shop." Some idioms are from famous books such as "bite the dust," which is more than 2,000 years old and comes from a line in Homer's Illiad. The Romans had a saying in Latin that meant "hit the nail on the head," which first appeared in English in a book printed in 1508. Elijah McCoy was an African-American inventor who is attributed with the idiom "the real McCoy," because his invention for the steam engine worked better than any other part being used for the same purpose. In the 1600s writers like Shakespeare were using the expression "break the ice." Some idioms, like "bring down the house" come from the theater and this one has been used since the 1700s. Shakespeare used the phrase "Greek to me" in his play Julius Caesar. "Burn your bridges behind you" has a military origin. In ancient military history, soldiers actually burned the bridges behind them so the enemy could not follow them; also so they could not turn back and run. "Head honcho," which is from the Japanese word hanchu (squad leader), is an example of an idiom from another language. Several idioms came from playing cards, for example, "the chips are down" and "ace up your sleeve." The idiom "cool as a cucumber" has a scientific history. When thermometers were invented in the 1500s, cucumbers were 20 degrees cooler inside than on the outside. Many idioms began as slang, and with continued use and popularity they became idioms. As these examples show, idioms have come from many different places and situations (Terban 14, 19, 21, 82, 85, 93, 156, 160). Also, the subjects of idioms touch every aspect of life. There are many idioms which have to do with the body. These include "eat your heart out," "cold shoulder," "butterflies in my stomach," "cold feet," "I'm all ears," and many more (Hamner 46).

            The use of idioms adds interest and color to language. Also, regarding young students, studying idioms is beneficial in improving reading comprehension. As mentioned earlier, idioms are commonly used in conversation, and also in children's literature. Since most idioms cannot be taken literally, they provide an excellent opportunity to practice reading comprehension. The benefit of studying idioms can apply to both the areas of childrens' reading and writing. In writing, the correct use of idioms makes the writing more interesting and descriptive. Idioms inherently involve the student in creative expression. When people hear an idiom for the first time, they usually create a picture in their mind of the literal interpretation of the idiom. This causes some very interesting reactions. Taken a bit further, the student can then apply the "hidden meaning" to the context of the reading.

            The study of idioms is useful to second language learners. Children and second language learners presumably learn idioms in a rote way or simply infer the meanings of idioms from context (Everaert 98). This is excellent practice for reading comprehension. Studying idioms to the point of being able to remember their meaning and being able to use them correctly in conversation are both helpful to students, especially second language learners. They need opportunities to practice the use of idioms, preferably in speaking, reading, and writing. When students use idioms in their speaking and writing it will be apparent that they are confident with what they have learned and it will give them a heightened fluency in the language because idiom usage is so ubiquitous in speech.

Implementation

Standards are taken from the New Mexico State Department of Education web site at (http://sde.state.nm.us).

This unit will be at the beginning of the year. The lessons will cover dialects and idioms with activities in both. The exposure of dialects and idioms will be all year long, through the teacher reading books written in dialect to the class. Through this extended exposure students will have ample opportunity to incorporate dialect and idiom usage into their reading and language experience. The books to read to the class throughout the year are: The Watsons Go to Birmingham -- 1963, Misty of Chincoteague, Nightjohn, and The Cay.

Assessment for this unit will be ongoing, including teacher observation and student involvement. The teacher will choose the activities to be assessed. The student involvement (for assessment) will include discussion participation, matching idiom with meaning, and idiom book made by students.

Lesson: Background of the English language

Main standards addressed:

            Language Arts I-A-1 (Use meta-cognitive strategies to comprehend text)
            Language Arts I-A-3 (Listen to a variety of texts)
            Social Studies I-C-1 (Explain how historical events, people, and culture                                     influence present day United States)

Objective: To illustrate the changing nature of language

            1.         Read The Journey of English to students
            2.         Students will refer to a world map during the story
            3.         Discussion of the story, focusing on the notion that language constantly changes and                           has many variations
            4.         Make a chart with each student contributing a fact about the book

Lesson: Effects of dialect

Main standards addressed:

            Language Arts I-C-1 (Respond to fiction; consider a situation from different                  characters' perspectives)
            Language Arts I-D-2 (Identify key words and discover their relationships)

Objective: To give students an opportunity to think critically about the effects of dialect on a person's life

            1.         Read "Who Said We All Have to Talk Alike?" (Appendix A)
            2.         Discuss the story with emphasis on what happened to the main character, Neffie             3.         Students share their reaction to what happened to her; encourage students to include                           what, why, how, etc. in their reactions
            4.         Students write in their journal about their reactions to Neffie's story
            5.         Students will practice the word pronunciations in the story
            6.         When they feel comfortable with Neffie's dialect, students will act out the story

Lesson: Dialects in the United States Regions

Main standards addressed:

            Social Studies II-A-1 (Understand the concept of location by using maps,                                 translate geographic information into a map)

Objective:         To gain knowledge of the regions of the United States and the dialects               spoken in the regions

            1.         Using a map of the United States, students color in the areas of the                                three main dialect areas (New England, Southern, and General                              American/Standard) (Appendix B)
            2.         Give students examples of typical pronunciations of words and let                                  them practice saying them

Lesson:    Southern Dialect

Main standards addressed:

            Language Arts I-C-1 (Demonstrate critical thinking skills to comprehend                                   visual information)
            Social Studies II-A-1 (Understand the concept of location to identify and                                  derive information about people, places and environments)

Objective: To experience what southern dialect sounds like

            1.         Show the video Where the Red Fern Grows (available at Blockbuster)
            2.         While viewing the video, students take notes on particular words and how they are                            pronounced
            3.         After the video, students will discuss how these words are different from what they                           would say

Lesson: Comparison of dialects

Main standards addressed:

            Language Arts I-C-1 (Respond to fiction analyzing author's word choice and                 context)

Objective: To hear the differences between particular dialects; to appreciate variation in language

            1.         Make tape recordings of people reading (in various dialects) the story “The Hare and the Tortoise” (Appendix C)

            2.         Students listen to the tape recordings, then practice speaking with                                  different dialects

Lesson: Definition and examples of idioms

Main standards addressed:

            Language Arts I-C-1 (Demonstrate critical thinking skills to comprehend                                   written information)

Objective:         Critical thinking and comprehension of meanings of idioms
            1.         Pass out examples of idioms (Appendix D)
            2.         Students try to guess what they mean
            3.         Let each student present their idiom and what they think it means.
            4.         See if anyone knows the real meaning of the idiom
            5.         Discuss with students why we should study idioms

Lesson: Idiom Quiz

Main standards addressed:

            Language Arts I-D-2 (Identify key words and discover their relationships)

            Language Arts I-D-5 (Increase vocabulary through reading, listening, and                                  interacting)

Objective: Students learn the meaning of idioms by getting practice using them
            1.         Using the activity "In Step With Idioms," (website) students practice idiom usage             2.         They can refer to the Scholastic Dictionary of Idioms if they are stumped; this                          activity provides them with practice in reading comprehension as well as the                          meanings of the specific idioms
            3.         Can be used as assessment

Lesson: Idioms in Spanish

Main standards addressed:

            Language Arts II-A-1 (Actively contribute to a discussion)
            Language Arts II-A-3 (Make oral presentations)
Objective: Students see that idioms occur in all languages
            1.         Have students bring idioms (in Spanish) to school
            2.         Let students share and discuss the idioms, comparing and contrasting them to                           English idioms

Lesson: More idioms

Main standards addressed:
            Language Arts I-A-3 (Read a variety of texts, examine character's actions)
            Objective:         Students respond to fiction, examining character's actions

            1.         Read "The Boy Who Cried Wolf" (Appendix E) to the class.
            2.         Discuss - ask students to explain the meaning of the story; ask students to give                           examples of when they or someone they know has "cried wolf"
            3.         After discussing the meaning of the idiom, "to cry wolf," students will make the first                           page for a book of idioms (Appendix F)
            4.         Using the attached form, they will write the idiom at the top, draw a picture, write                            the meaning, and use the idiom in a sentence
            5.         This activity will continue so the students will have their own book of idioms

Lesson: Idiom Word Wall

Main standards addressed:
            Language Arts I-D-5 (Increase vocabulary through reading, listening and interacting)

Objective: To provide continual exposure to idioms
            1.         Give each student a 3 X 5 index card
            2.         Students write an idiom (from the list of idioms or an idiom book) on the 3 X 5 card;                           include the meaning, a sentence using the idiom, and a picture
            3.         Hang the cards on the wall

Lesson: Create an idiom

Main standards addressed:
            Language Arts II-A-3 (Demonstrate competence in speaking to convey information)

Objective:         Students practice critical thinking
            1.         Students come up with an idiom of their own
            2.         They will fill out the same form and add it to their book
            3.         Students present their idiom to the class

Assessment:      Idiom book

Appendix A

adapted from
"Who Said We All Have To Talk Alike"
Wilma Elizabeth McDaniel

Who knows how Neffie Pike's speech pattern was formed? Her Ozark family had talked the same way for generations. They added an "r" to many words that did not contain that letter. In spite of this, or because of it, their speech was clear and colorful and to the point. Most people understood what they were talking about, exactly.

            Neffie was her parent's daughter. She called a toilet, "torelet," and a woman, "worman," very comfortably. The teacher at the country school never attempted to change Neffie's manner of speaking. She said that Neffie had a fine imagination and should never allow anyone to squelch it. In fact, Neffie never really knew that she talked different from most other people. People in the tiny community of Snowball really loved Neffie. She would have probably lived her life out in the same lumber house if her husband had not died.

            Neffie sat down in a canebottom chair when she went to visit Grandma Meade. She announced, "I have got me a job in California." Grandma Meade sat in shocked silence for several seconds. Neffie looked stonily at Grandma Meade and said with her usual clarity, "A widder worman is a free worman, especially if she don't have no children. She ought to be free to come and go like she pleases. After all, I am only fifty-one years old. I can do as much work as I ever did. This job is taking care of two little girls while their mother works at some high paying job. She has already sent me a bus ticket. I would be a fool not to go. Everyone has been to California except me. I always hankered to see the state for myself. Now is my chance to see some of the rest of the world. It may sound foolish, but it will sort of be like having a dorter of my own and grandchildren. I aim to write you a long letter when I get settled down out there."

            Neffie left for California on schedule. A month passed without any word from Neffie. Bug Harrison was at Grandma Meade's house when Neffie returned the day after Snowball's big Fourth of July celebration. Neffie put her suitcases down and began at the beginning. "Grandma, you was so right about so many things. I knowed I was in trouble hockdeep, only one minute after I stepped off that bus in California. A purty young worman come forward to meet me and said she was Beryl. I busted out and told her, 'My, you are a purty worman, even purtier than your pitcher.' She kinda shrunk back and looked at me like I had used a cussword. She stood there holding her little girls' hands and asked me, where on earth did you hear a work like worman, was it a female worm of some kind? She said, 'Worman is woe-man,' like you say woh to a horse. Her remark nearly knocked me off my feet. I felt like a fool, and I didn't even know why. My stomach started churning. I durst not say anything to defend myself, because I hadn't done anything wrong.

            "We started walking to Beryl's station wagon in the parking lot. I told her that I never was blessed with a dorter or son, either. That set her off again. She said that her children were at a very impressionable age, that I would have to watch my speech and learn the correct pronunciation of words. She did not want them picking up incorrect speech patterns and something she called coll-oke-ism, something I had, and didn't even realize. I decided to shut up and get in the car.

            "It was sure a pleasurable drive on to Beryl's home. I forgot myself again and said that I never had seem pams before except in pitchers. Quick as a flash Beryl told me, 'They are pall-ms, not pams. There is an l in the word.' After that, I sure buttoned up my mouth. I just said yes or no to anything she asked me.

            "On Monday, Beryl left for work promptly at seven-thirty. That meant the girls and I had the house to ourselves. Worman, I am a telling you, they was two living dolls, Pat and Penny. I made them bran muffins for breakfast and scrambled some eggs. They ate until they nearly foundered. It seemed like they had never seen a bran muffin before, asked me if I would cook them the same thing each day.

            Grandma Meade had been listening intently, then she asked, "How did Beryl like your cooking?"

            Neffie laughed heartily. She said, "To put it plain, she LOVED it. I boirled her a fine big cabbage and hamhock dinner and made cornbread for our supper one evening. When we started to sit down at the table, I said that it was a nice change to have a boirled dinner now and then. That set her off like a firecracker. She said, 'That is boil-ed, not boirled.' I decided to let that snide remark pass.

            Bug Harrison broke in, "What were your duties during the day?"

            Neffie replied, "the girls and I played the most of the day. They would sit on each arm of my chair and listen to me tell them about my life back in Arkansas. I didn't hold back nothing. I told them about haunted houses, ghosts, robbers, bank holdups, tornadoes, snakes, tarantulas, times when the river flooded and we had to float on a rooftop to save our lives. Lordy, worman, they just ate it up. The would listen to me with their eyes as big as saucers. I asked the girls not to tell their mother about my stories. They got so excited over one of my stories that they forgot theirselves. I heard Pat tell her mother, 'Mom, back in Arkansas where Neffie used to live, they are wormans that can tell fortunes for people. They can look right through your face and tell if you are telling the truth or a lie. They can rub your warts with skunk oirl and say some words and all the warts will fall off.

            "Beryl blowed her stack. She marched right back to the kitchen with the girls at her heels. She stood in the door and said, 'I have been afraid of this very thing. Neffie, I just can't keep you on any longer.' Neffie, you are as good and kind and honest as you can be, exceptional, but your speech is totally unacceptable. My children are at a very impressionable age. I have tried to overlook it, but they are definitely being influenced in the wrong direction. They say dorter and orter with regularity. This pattern must be eradicated immediately. I shall be happy to pay your traveling expenses home. She put me on the bus with my paid ticket, just like she had promised. She and the girls stood there beside the bus waiting for it to pull out. Penny looked up at me and blew me a kiss. I heard her say as plain as plain could be, 'Neffie, you are a sweet worman.' Then I saw Beryl put her hand over Penny's mouth. Right then, the bus pulled out of the depot and I lost sight of them.

            "Worman, I done a lot of thinking as that bus rolled along the highway. I saw I had really been ignorant of some things that other folks knowed. I didn't talk right to suit some of them, but that wasn't my fault. I didn't know we was all supposed to talk the same way. I thought people hadn't all talked the same since before God tore down their tower at Babel and confused all their tongues. Folks all over the world have talked different ever since then. I guess some of them like Beryl want to go back to pre-Babel days. Worman, who said that we all have to talk alike? Can anyone tell me that?"

Appendix B

Map of U.S. Dialect Regions

Appendix C

The Hare and the Tortoise

One day, the Hare was laughing at the Tortoise for his slow and ungainly walk, so the Tortoise challenged him to a race. The Hare, looking on the whole affair as a great joke, agreed, and the Fox was selected to act as umpire and hold the stakes. The race began, and the Hare, of course, soon left the Tortoise far behind. When she reached midway to the finish line, she began to play and nibble the young grass and amuse herself in many ways. Because the day was so warm, she even thought she would take a little nap in a shady spot; even if the Tortoise should pass her while she slept, she could easily overtake him again before he reached the end. The Tortoise, however, plodded steadily on, unwavering and unresting, straight toward the finish line. Meanwhile, the Hare woke up suddenly from her nap, and was surprised to find that the Tortoise was nowhere in sight. Off she went at full speed, but when she got to the finish, she found that the Tortoise was already there, waiting for her arrival. Moral: Slow and steady wins the race.

Appendix D

Idioms
adapted from Scholastic Dictionary of Idioms

Ants in your pants
At the drop of a hat
Babe in the woods
Bark is worse than your bite
Beat around the bush
Bird in the hand is worth two in the bush
Bite the bullet
Black sheep of the family                                   Break the ice
Bury your head in the sand
Butterflies in the stomach
Can't see the forest for the trees
Cat got your tongue?
Clam up
Climb the walls
Cool as a cucumber
Crocodile tears
Cry wolf
Drive you crazy
Drop in the bucket
Easy as pie
Fly off the handle
Full of beans
Gift of gab
Head in the clouds
Hold your horses
Keep a straight face
Leave someone holding the bag
More than one way to skin a cat
On the hot seat
Put all your eggs into one basket
Shake a leg
Tickle your funny bone
Wild-goose chase
As the crow flies
At the end of your rope
Backseat driver
Beat a dead horse
Beggars can't be choosers
Birds of a feather flock together
Bite the dust
Blind leading the blind
Bull in a China shop
Busy as a beaver
Button your lip
Cast pearls before swine
Chicken feed
Clean as a whistle
Cold feet
Cost an arm and a leg
Cry over spilled milk
Don't count your chickens before they hatch
Early bird catches the worm
Fifth wheel
For the birds
Get the lead out of your feet
Handwriting on the wall
Hit the books
In hot water
Kick the bucket
Light at the end of the tunnel
Needle in the haystack
Open a can of worms
Real McCoy
Spill the beans
When the cat's away, the mice will play

Appendix E

The Boy Who Cried Wolf
adapted from Aesop's Fables
Aesop

Once there was a mischievous Boy who used to watch over a flock of sheep near a village. As a joke, the Boy used to cry out, "Wolf! Wolf!" in order to see all the Villagers rush to his aid. When they discovered that there was no wolf, the Boy just laughed at them. One day, after the Boy had tricked the Villagers several times, a wolf really did appear. But this time, when the Boy cried, "Wolf! Wolf!" the Villagers, who were tired of being laughed at, ignored his cries for help, and the whole flock was lost. Moral: If you tell a lot of lies, no one will believe you even when you tell the truth.

Appendix F

Form for Student Idiom Book

Idiom: ______________________________________________________________

(students draw picture here)

Meaning: ____________________________________________________________

Idiom used in a sentence: _______________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Documentation

Bibliography

Baugh, Albert C., Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. Englewood    Cliffs, NJ:             Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1978.

Cacciari, Cristina. "Imaging Idiomatic Expressions: Literal or Figurative Meanings?" In Martin              Everaert (ed.) Idioms Structural and Psychological Perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ:
            Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1995.

"The dialects of North American English." http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/Atlas_chapters/Ch11/Ch11.html

Everaert, Martin, et.al. Idioms Structural and Psychological Perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ:             Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1995.

Editors of Scholastic Inc. Scholastic Children's Dictionary. New York, NY: Scholastic Inc.,              1996.

Finnegan, Edward. Language: Its Structure and Use. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace, 1999.

Gibbs, Raymond W., Jr. "Idiomaticity and Human Cognition." In Martin Everaert (ed.) Idioms            Structural and Psychological Perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,            1995.

Hamner, Nan, Jay Hamner. S.C.H.O.L.A.R. Albuquerque, NM: Scholar Programs, Unlimited,            1982.

Hazen, Kirk. "Teaching About Dialects." Educational Resources Information Center.October              2001. West Virginia University. http://www.cal.org/ericcll/digest/0104dialects.html

Hendrickson, Robert. American Talk. New York, NY: Viking Penguin, Inc., 1986.

Herman, Lewis. American Dialects. New York, NY: Theatre Arts Books, 1978.

Labov, William, Sharon Ash, Charles Boberg. "A National Map of The Regional Dialects of              American English." July 15, 1997. The Linguistics Laboratory, Department of Linguistics,              University of Pennsylvania.
            http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/NationalMap/NationalMap.html

Lecture 19: Sociolinguistics I.
           www.ling.udel.edu/colin/courses/ling101/lecture19.html

McCrum, Robert, et.al. The Story of English. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 1992.

McDaniel, Wilma Elizabeth. "Who Said We All Have To Talk Alike." Hear My Voice: A                   Multicultural Anthology of Literature from the United States. Ed. Laurie King.                 Menlo Park, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1994. 7-12.

Mencken, H.L. The American Language. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977.

Metcalf, Allan. "How We Talk." Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000.

Preston, Dennis R., et.al. American Dialect Research. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins
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Reed, Carroll E. Dialects of American English. University of Massachusetts: The University of                  Massachusetts Press, 1977.

Safire, William. On Language. New York, NY: Times Books, 1980.

Salvucci, C. "Linguistic Geography of the Mainland United States." Evolution Publishing, 1999.                www.evolpub.com/Americandialects/AmDialMap.html.

Terban, Marvin. Scholastic Dictionary of Idioms. New York, NY: Scholastic Inc., 1996.

Wolfram, Walt. Dialects and Education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents, 1989.

Teacher Resources and Student Books

Aesop. Aesop's Fables. New York, NY: Dover Publications, Inc., 1994.

Brook, Donna. The Journey of English. New York, NY: Clarion Books, 1998.

Curtis, Christopher Paul. The Watsons Go to Birmingham -- 1963. New York, NY:
            Scholastic, 1995.

Henry, Marguerite. Misty of Chincoteague. New York, NY: Alladin, 1947.

Incentive Publications, Inc. Reading Yellow Pages for Students and Teachers. Nashville, TN            Incentive Publications, Inc., 1988.

McDaniel, Wilma Elizabeth. "Who Said We All Have to Talk Alike." Hear My Voice. Laurie              King, Editor. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley, 1994. Page 7-12.

Nevins, Ann and Dan. From the Horse's Mouth. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,              1977.

Paulsen, Gary. Nightjohn. New York, NY: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, 1993.

Taylor, Theodore. The Cay. New York, NY: Avon Books Inc., 1969.

Terban, Marvin. Mad As a Wet Hen! and Other Funny Idioms. New York, NY: Ticknow &             Fields: A Houghton Mifflin Company, 1987.

Websites
www.americandialect.org/
www.funbrain.com/idioms/
www.eslcafe.com/idioms