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A Study of Voice in Language

Victor Carl Sanchez

Academic Setting

The topic chosen for this curriculum unit came from my interest in the careless use of language found in my students speech and writing. This carelessness can lead to misunderstanding and conflict. Coming out of my initial research I shifted my focus onto a field of linguistics called discourse analysis. Discourse analysis is the study of how conversation is used and interpreted in everyday life (Tannen 1986, 4). Using discourse analysis, my first focus is on how students use language to communicate with one another. I specifically concentrate on what happens in discussion that leads to misunderstanding and misinterpretation. It focuses on how, either consciously or unconsciously, we use language to send hidden messages and how our audience interprets these messages. In the lesson plans section of this report, I use several examples from several settings to look at some of the hidden messages and misinterpretations. Through reflection, students should see how some of their choices in language affect their message and how to avoid them and perhaps how to use them to their benefit.

The unit then shifts from spoken usage to the use of written language. We go from studying the “voice” in conversation to studying the “voice” an author uses in writing. Voice is the quality an author gives to a piece of writing, which shows a little of the author’s personality and intent. It is much harder to find a writer’s voice because we are missing much of the nonverbal clues we have in direct face to face conversation. This part of the unit focuses on how authors communicate with us as readers and how we interpret that as readers. We look at textual clues which show us the author’s voice as well as how students use voice in their own writing.

The discussion of voice then leads into one on grammar – mainly the differences between prescriptive and descriptive grammar. The students will see how prescriptive grammar doesn’t truly reflect what is said in everyday speech. If we have talked about a writer’s voice, why does grammar sometimes choke that voice off in order to fit it into the “correct style?” In this section, we can see that grammar has been a constantly evolving force and how, throughout history, writers have bent the rules of prescriptive grammar to fit their unique voices. Students should see the role of grammar in a different light and that in some cases they need to adjust the prescribed rules to fit their needs (and the fact that most of them already do this in daily conversation).

This unit is intended for a midschool (grades 6-8) language arts and literature class. Through this unit, students will be better able to see how their use of language could lead to unintentional misinterpretations of their intended message. Students should be able to reflect on their word choices and how this affects the voice they give their writing and speech. They will also see how authors and other media use language to give their work “voice” and how that influences them. Finally, students will be able to see how some of the rules of grammar work and how grammar should not be seen as a constraint but rather a tool they can use for specific purposes.

Context and Background

Discourse analysis

As speakers of English, we rarely think about what we say and how it is interpreted by others. According to Tannen (1986), everything we say must be said “in some tone of voice, at some rate of speed, with some intonation and loudness (45).” Each of these elements of speech leads to an interpretation by the listener. This use of the language in everyday situations is a field of linguistics called discourse analysis. Discourse analysis studies how we use language and how others interpret that language. Rarely do we as language users think about how we say things before they are said.

            During conversation, we are more concerned with getting information out rather than perceiving clues that show us how the message is being received (Garrity et al. 323-4). One of the major components of conversation is intonation, which includes pacing, pausing, loudness, and changes in pitch. The wrong tone of voice, facial clues, or word choices are just a few of the conversational clues that lead to a metamessage. A metamessage is not what is necessarily said but what is the unsaid message of your words (Tannen 1986 51). To look at this concept, I will focus on changes in pitch during conversation. Change in pitch is one of the most important aspects of conversation. Change in pitch can signal relative meaning, turn taking, or emotions. Pitch change can also be used at the end of a sentence to signal a question. For example, the sentence Let’s go to the movies could be literally translated into You and I are going to see a movie. If the pitch of movie is changed in this sentence it could be translated into Do we want to go to the movies?. The words that make up the sentence are the same but the meaning underlying the words differ just by simply changing my pitch. That is why slight differences in conversational style – “tiny little things like microseconds of pause” (Tannen 1986, 48-9) – can have enormous consequences.

An example of a misinterpreted metamessage could be when a parent asks a child to put on a coat. An adolescent may perceive this as mistrust and the adult being bossy while the parent feels she is just showing concern. The adolescent could get upset and storm out of the room because he feels he is not trusted to judge the weather for himself and make appropriate changes in dress. The parent, on the other hand, doesn’t understand the child’s reaction for her simple show of concern. This misunderstanding came about because of a difference in conversational style. No matter what words the parent said, the child heard the parent’s mistrust. In this example the metamessage was unconscious but interpreted. People often say that, “It’s not what you said but it is the way you said it” (Tannen 1986, 194) It is for these reasons that we usually see the conflict we do in schools.

Many violence prevention and mediation programs in schools try to address this issue by placing disputants in a neutral setting where the disputants are able to reinterpret, discuss, and change what was said (for example, the mediation training provided by the New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution, NMCDR). The most common technique to do this is called reframing (some programs call it framing, but it is basically the same technique). Reframing is simply taking what was said and putting it in a different frame of reference. Both parties in the conversation are able to sit down and discover the metamessage, see what led to this misunderstanding, and come to a solution. According to Tannen, the most powerful way to change interaction is to make others aware of the signals they are giving through their conversational style. Once speakers are aware of these signals, they are more apt to change them during a conversation and avoid misinterpretation. Once in these forums, students are able to reflect on why they chose the words they did and how when they spoke them caused specific reactions. Many students find out that after they are allowed to reexpress their thoughts, the conflict is ended, and they are able to apply the strategies they learned to other situations (NMCDR 8-9).

The voice that students use in their speech is a powerful tool. They see daily how sometimes the message they say becomes misinterpreted. Making students more reflective on their word choice and how they send their message would hopefully make them careful in their use of language. Seeing how much their words influence their audience easily flows into them looking at the language others use to influence them. In conversation, the way we use and are used by words is very powerful, and that power can be captured in writing.

Voice in Writing

In conversation, we are not granted the time to pick and choose our words as we are able to in writing. In fact most of the time we are unconscious of our tone, pausing, and other signals. There is a marked difference in face to face conversation and “the more reflective, composed nature of most writing” (Hughes et al. 273). But most prose is like good speech. As Sanders states, “(Voice is) language with the juices still in it and the bark still on it, language that conveys the rhythm of an individual voice” (54). In writing, an author usually has plenty of time to reflect on and pick specific words for specific purposes but is missing the direct clues given during conversation. Instead, an author affects through humor, love, and even hate all by word choice. This intent usually comes through to the reader as the author’s voice. An author uses voice for several reasons: either to persuade; to influence such as in propaganda (O’Donnell et al. 49), advertisement, or opinion; or to get across an emotional state.

Discourse and Grammar

This unit finally looks how discourse influences our grammar. The speech our students use may not be correct grammar and invites us into the ongoing debate between prescriptive and descriptive grammar. Prescriptive grammar is defined as the set of agreed upon rules for “proper” language use (e.g. Hughes et al. 268; Wolfram 80-1). While prescriptive grammar focuses on what should be, descriptive grammar aims to describe language systems how they are – an “emphasis on what is, not on what should be” (Wolfram 82).

It would be a mistake to think that descriptive grammar is an anything-goes, no-rules approach to grammar. Descriptive grammar finds the common patterns of language among a set of users. Two examples are the a- attachment found in Appalachian dialects and the use of “be” in African American dialect such as in the sentences: I’m a-running to the store and I be running to the store. Though these two sentences are socially disfavored, they follow “rigorous linguistic patterns…every bit as organized as their [prescriptive] counterparts” (Hughes et al. 84). The rule for the a- attachment is that it can only be attached to an –ing verb. So in Appalachian dialect I can write I am a-running to the store but not *I a-runned to the store yesterday. In the use of “be,” it has to be used for a habitual activity not an instant activity. So in African American dialect I can write I be running to the store every day for groceries but not *I forgot the tomatoes so I be running to the store now. All four of the above sentences are incorrect from a prescriptive grammar view but at least two of the sentences are correct from descriptive grammar.

Another typical prescriptive grammar rule, which conflicts with some everyday use, would be to never use a double negative in a sentence. Though this is a rule now, it was not true in Old English and even appears in Shakespeare and modern day rap. Our inclination as language teachers is to see language as having standards that are unchanging and consistent (Wolfram 106).

            Students are finding it hard to resolve their everyday use of language with the prescribed “correct” rules of grammar. According to Wolfram, there is no tradition for studying this variation in grammars because the traditional model of language teachers has been to attack and eradicate these differences (91). This can be seen in a passage written by Sanders:

They made it clear that I was not to compare the pleasure of figuring out a poem to the baying of coon dogs hot on the scent, not to discuss immigration by quoting the Old World sayings of my Assyrian grandfather…anything that made me sound different from the general run of my classmates was pruned away, first by my teachers than by me. Over those same years, of course, my classmates were having their own wings clipped (Culham 52).

Our classrooms are becoming more and more culturally diverse and along with that cultural diversity comes linguistic diversity. In their article, Hughes et al. note a growing interest in this field among linguists and language teachers – mainly because they are finding that “discourse drives grammar, not the reverse” (274). The best tool we can offer our students to address this conflict is to make them aware of details of language structure, variation, history, and manipulation these elements will “transfer these skills to other language learning tasks” (Wolfram 81).

Conclusion

The point of this unit is to show students that the language they use to speak and write is loaded with hidden messages that come through as their voice. Voice is a powerful tool that if used uncaringly can lead to misunderstanding and conflict. Used effectively, it enhances writing by displaying voice. Finally, students will learn how grammatical rules can and have been changed to reflect what authentically happens in writing as compared to what is supposed to happen in writing.

            Finally, this is just a small scratch at the surface of discourse analysis. Any of the subsections discussed above could be expanded upon and given much more depth. The concepts are hard for adults to grasp much less mid-school students. The intent of the unit is not to give students a course on discourse analysis, but rather to have them reflect on how conversation is used and misused in the language around them. Once a student is made aware of how much power their voice has they will be given a valuable tool they can apply to their writing and life.

Implementation

Performance Standards

For purposes of this unit, I include the performance standards for sixth grade. The lesson plans included in this unit hit on strands for all mid-school grades.

Grade 6 : Strand II

Strand II: Reading Analysis
Content Standard: The student responds to, examines, and critiques historically and culturally significant issues and events portrayed in literature that both illustrate and affect people, society, and individuals.

6-8 Benchmark: The student examines literature from a variety of authors, cultures, and genre and makes connections among a variety of literary works

Performance Standards

Literary Analysis

Analyzes media as a source of information, entertainment, persuasion, or interpretation of events; Identifies and explores the underlying assumptions of the author; Recognizes underlying messages in order to identify recurring themes; Generates questions to be answered while reading and reflects on what has been learned after reading.
Literary Elements

Identifies and explains main ideas, themes, setting, action, main character(s), and details in a variety of texts; Identifies literary elements (e.g., plot, point of view, characterization, tone) in a variety of texts; Discusses and analyzes the effects of literary devices (e.g., dialogue, flashback) on the meaning of texts.
Literary Applications

Reads self-selected literature and other materials of individual interest; Discusses selections in teacher-student discussions and small groups; Takes an active role in whole-class seminars; Describes how personal circumstances and background affect the reader’s response and interpretation of a text; Describes how characters’ actions reflect values, cultures, and experiences; Describes the author’s use of various techniques (e.g., appeal of characters, logic and credibility of plots and setting, use of figurative language, and emotional impact) to influence readers’ perspectives; Explains socially or culturally significant works of literature to develop an awareness of a variety of perspectives; Examines connections between a variety of cultures, both worldwide and within American society, as depicted through a variety of literature and media.

Strand V: Receptive Language: Listening and Viewing
Content Standard: The student demonstrates, analyzes, evaluates, and reflects upon the skills and processes used to communicate by listening to and viewing a variety of auditory and visual works

6-8 Benchmarks: The student comprehends, analyzes, and interprets formal and informal auditory and visual works, including multimedia presentations

Performance Standards

Listening/Viewing Strategies

Organizes information that is heard or viewed; paraphrases the information; makes connections to related topics/information; and asks questions when unsure of information. Develops and applies appropriate criteria to evaluate the quality of communication by: using knowledge of language structure and literary or media techniques; drawing conclusions based on evidence, reasons, or relevant information, and considering the implications, consequences, or impact of those conclusions.

Listening/Viewing Applications

Identifies, analyzes, and critiques the persuasive and propaganda techniques used in presentations and media. Interacts appropriately in group settings by asking relevant questions, listening responsively and respectfully, and understanding the speaker’s verbal and nonverbal messages.

Strand III: Expressive Language: Writing
Content Standard: The student writes effectively for different audiences and purposes (e.g., to describe, narrate, express, explain, persuade, and analyze) using appropriate writing strategies and conventions.

6-8 Benchmark: The student develops and demonstrates proficiency and competence in writing strategies and conventions across content areas to describe, narrate, express, explain, persuade, and analyze critically for a variety of purposes and audiences

Writing Strategies

Demonstrates proficiency in using the steps of the writing process to create a final product with emphasis on the following: revises written work to make it clearer, produces written work that employs a definite voice appropriate to the writing purpose, drafts, revises, edits, and proofreads own written work and that of peers. Demonstrates proficiency in using elements of effective writing (e.g., idea, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, and conventions). Demonstrates proficiency in using a variety of technology (e.g., word processors, overhead projectors, multi-media) to present information appropriate for the intended purpose and audience.

Writing Conventions

Demonstrates proficiency with writing conventions (e.g., grammar, spelling, mechanics, capitalization) with emphasis on the following: uses simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences; uses effective coordination and subordination of ideas to express complete thoughts clearly; identifies and properly uses indefinite pronouns and present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect verb tenses to convey appropriate meaning; uses verbs that agree with compound subjects; uses subject-verb agreement with compound subjects; punctuates using commas to link two clauses with a conjunction in compound sentences; spells frequently misspelled and confused words correctly (e.g., there, their, they're).

Writing Applications

Demonstrates proficiency in applying appropriate types of writing (e.g., descriptive, narrative, expressive, expository, persuasive, and analytical) for the purpose and audience: writes a fictional or autobiographical account; composes a variety of written work (e.g., prose, poetry, drama, mixed media) to express individual perspectives drawn from personal experience; writes for public and private audiences; writes essays that describe problems and solutions (e.g., identifies and defines the problem, describes a solution clearly and convincingly, presents logical and well-supported reasons); produces writings that incorporate a definite voice of the author appropriate to the writing purpose; creates a multiple-paragraph expository essay that establishes an introductory topic, key idea, or events in sequence and/or chronological order; provides details and transitional expressions which link paragraph to paragraph in a clear line of thought; and offers a concluding paragraph that summarizes the key ideas and details; supports opinions with detailed evidence and with visual or media displays.

Lesson Plans

All lesson plans should be adapted to fit your class’s particular needs. If your class loves to do role play, all the following lessons can easily be adapted to having students role-play and the class discussing the goals of the lessons. In my classes, I like to do a lot of writing and discussions, with the students doing the majority of directing where we are going as a class. If students seem to really like the active listening portions of this unit, I would recommend continuing the subject with follow up lessons – such as looking in literature and media for other examples.

Lesson 1: Introduction to Active Listening

Goal: Students get an introduction into what makes a good listener. Students should find that a good listener has skills of restating, questioning, encouraging, and summarizing. They can then apply this to their own conversations.

Anticipatory Set: Conduct a discussion on listening including: Do you speak or listen more everyday? Which skill is more important? Why is listening important? Answers should include to get information, to learn, to understand another’s feelings, and to learn about different points of view.

Instruction: After the initial discussion, have two students model two conversations (you can have them ad lib or give them a conversation starter). Have the first dialogue be a model of good listeners. For the second dialogue have them model a bad listener. As the acting is going on, the audience is to write down any clues they see that make the actors good or bad listeners.

Evaluation: The success should be seen during the conversation. As the students describe what they saw they should pick up things like body language (nodding, smiling), asking clarifying questions, restating, and summarizing. As the large group is discussing their lists, copy what they are saying on the blackboard. When that is finished go over the four categories of active listening: encouraging, questioning, restating, and summarizing. Have the students decide which item they pointed out goes under which category. Some items will go under more than one category.

Lesson 2: Using Active Listening to Observe

Goal: To use the skills of active listening discussed in Lesson 1. Students get to practice how to practice active listening and then reframe a conversation. They are beginning to see the verbal and nonverbal.

Anticipatory Set: Review of the terms for active listening: encouraging, questioning, restating, and summarizing. Discuss that during arguments or miscommunication, these strategies do not usually happen.

Instruction and Group Practice: Distribute handout and divide class into four groups. Each one takes a different active listening skill and watches for that in their group. Two members of each group are given a dispute to act out. The group gets to watch and see what they are doing wrong and record the actions on a handout [handouts are grouped below each lesson]. The groups come back to the larger class and discuss what they saw, using the handout as props. Remember to have the discussion focus on the listening skills and what they say in the dialogue. You want to discuss the metamessage at this point. What was said really wasn’t what was meant in the role-play.

Evaluation: It should be evident from the discussion and handout that students are beginning to understand what is happening during an argumentative conversation and how one word affects a conversation.

Handouts:

Active Listening Worksheet

Techniques for active listening:

1.      Encourage the other person to keep talking by showing interest in what they are saying. For example: “Can you tell me more about…”

2.      Ask questions in order to get more information and better understanding. For example: “How long has this been happening?” or “Where did this happen?”

3.      Using your own words, restate the basic ideas and facts. Try to use feeling words. For example, “I bet you were really mad and embarrassed when you fell down in the cafeteria.”

4.      Summarize the important ideas to check if you are understanding what is being said. For example: “This is what I see is happening…and you think…and she says…Is that right?”

Now each group will look at the following situations. You should have two members of your group act out the scenario, paying particular attention to your category of active listening skills. Be sure to look at how the actors effectively used active listening techniques to reframe the situation.

Encouraging

Disputant 1: She’s always taking things of mine without asking permission. I don’t know, I’m jut angry at her because taking my hair dryer was the last straw.

Disputant 2: I don’t know why she’s so angry. She’s never said anything about this before and she always asks me to borrow things.

What did you see?
What would you do to encourage these disputants to keep talking?

Questioning

Disputant 1: The teacher is always blaming me for everything. It doesn’t matter whether I’m talking or not. He thinks I’m the one who does it.

Disputant 2: Every time I have to quiet the class down, the talking is coming from his area. I’m not singling him out, I’m telling the whole class to quiet down. He just likes to make a big production out of the whole thing.

What did you see?

What questions could you ask to find out more information and understand the problem better?

Restating

Disputant 1: Sometimes Ms. Baca, the English teacher, talks too fast and I can’t understand what she’s saying. I’m afraid to ask her to slow down because I think she’ll yell at me.

Disputant 2: Jim seems to be quiet in class. I don’t really know him that well. I see him struggling a little but since he’s in the eighth grade, I kind of expect him to come to me for any questions.

What did you see?

How can you restate Jim’s ideas and feelings?

Summarizing

Disputant 1: She was spreading rumors about me that I was talking to her boyfriend and trying to steal him away. But that’s not true. Her boyfriend came up to me and started talking to me. She’s making a huge deal out of nothing.

Disputant 2: According to my best friend, she saw her go up to my boyfriend and start talking to her. She’s been jealous of me since 2^nd grade. I can’t believe we used to be best friends.

What did you see?

What important feelings and ideas can you summarize from what was said?

Lesson 3: The Deserted Planet – An Active Listening Game

Goal: To practice active listening techniques, especially restating and summarizing.

Anticipatory Set: Review active listening skills by having the students define what it is. Make sure these three points get covered: Active listening helps us to hear what people have to say and how they feel; it helps us understand and remember what is important to the conversation, listener makes the speaker feel good because he knows someone is listening and understanding. All of these techniques are reframing a situation to avoid miscommunication.

Instruction: Divide the class into groups of five or six. Distribute handout found at the end of this lesson. Read the handout’s scenario out loud to the whole class. There are three rules to this game. 1.) In this game you will have a chance to give an opinion about who receives the anti-radiation medication but before you do you must summarize what the last speaker just said. 2.) Each group should pick a referee. The referee’s job is to make sure that before someone speaks, she has summarized what the last person said. 3.) If possible, each group should try to come to an agreement on which of the people should stay. Finally, give some examples of stating an opinion so students know what you are looking for. For example, “I think the teacher should be given the medication because he can then educate the survivors.” Once again this lesson can be changed to fit the personality of your class. If your class like to role-play, you can assign them roles and then have them make their case for survival.

Group Practice: Assign 20 minutes for group discussion. After the allotted time, ask the group to report back on what decisions they have made.

Evaluation: Discuss the activity with the following questions: Did you feel that the group members really heard and understood you? How did the game make you feel about yourself? Is it easier or harder to talk to someone who practices active listening? Why? Do you feel it is useful to use active listening during everyday conversation?

Handout

Deserted Planet Activity

It is the year 2050. On your way to a vacation in the crab nebula your spaceship, the Minnow II, is sucked through a black hole and crash lands on an unknown planet. Fortunately, the planet is just like Earth with lots of food, water, and moderate temperatures. Unfortunately, during the crash landing, your nuclear engines burst open irradiating the twelve passengers who survived. There is only enough medication to treat nine of the survivors. There is no hope of rescue because you’ve been flung across the universe. The nine survivors are basically going to create a new society on this new planet. You must decide which nine will make up this new society.

Rules: Before giving an opinion, restate what the person who spoke before you has said. Try to make a decision about which nine people will be saved.

1.      A black poet who is 36 years old and unmarried.

2.      A young doctor who is dying of terminal cancer.

3.      A sixteen year old high school dropout who is highly intelligent and is possibly pregnant.

4.      A catholic priest.

5.      A female electrical engineer who graduated from college two years ago.

6.      A famous male singer who is a recovering alcoholic.

7.      A reformed prostitute who is now a social worker and the mother of two children.

8.      An armed policeman (he and his loaded gun cannot be separated).

9.      A 50-year-old female laboratory scientist who specializes in biology and plant life.

10. The husband of the scientist who is addicted to cocaine.

11. A professional athlete.

12. A twelve-year old boy.

For the next two lessons I have to state that I get the majority of my writing curriculum done through the Six Trait Writing Model. This model can be found on the website found in the documentation section of this unit. Scoring sheets and ideas are listed and available for use without charge. My students should be writing daily – even if it’s just a five minute reflection in a writing journal. Part of Six Trait is the category of voice. In the first three lessons we have been studying how voice affects them in conversation and how they can reframe to understand what is said. In the next two lessons we transfer those skills to their writing, emphasizing how their intentions of their writing come through in their written voice.

Lesson 4: Studying Voice in Student Writing Part 1: Adding Voice

Goal: Students begin to recognize voice in their writing. They begin to see that an individual’s voice can make the reader interested in what is being said.

Anticipatory Set: Remind students about voice. You may want to draw parallels to the active listening units. When you were doing active listening you were asking questions to get information. Sometimes words, phrases, and intonations changed meanings completely. Look for that in these passages.

Instruction: Place the passage on the overhead and read it aloud. Ask for opinions about the piece--what did they think about the writing, specifically its voice? See if they can come up with single word descriptions of the voice in this piece--flat? boring? lifeless? dull? What questions come to mind--who? what? when? where? why? how?--as they look at this writing? (Some of the same questions they used in the reframing exercises in the first lessons of this unit.) How would they score this for voice using the Six Trait Scoring Guide?

Group Practice: In small groups, have students review the rules for strong voice and rewrite the passage, attempting to "voice it up." Reread the original "voiceless" writing, then have the groups share aloud their new "voicy" versions. Talk about what was added or changed to improve the voice. Did this make the audience more or less interested in what the writer was trying to express?

Evaluation: Their goal is to earn a "5" in voice for their reworked piece of writing and begin to see how voice affects their audience.

Sample passages (I like to use my students’ own work for these exercises. I take what they have written and “devoice” it):
I was really surprised by the present. It was the best present I had ever gotten. I couldn’t wait to go to Colorado to try it out.
My whole family was going to go with me. They were all excited, too. We were going to meet my crazy uncle there.
When we met him there I could not believe it. He introduced us to Pam.
I had lots of fun. The present was really great. And the surprising things I learned about my uncle and Pam. I really like Pam. She’s great.
It was the best thing I did all summer.

Lesson 5: Studying Voice in Student Writing Part 1: Taking out Voice

Goal: Students begin to recognize voice in their writing. They begin to see that an individual’s voice can make the reader interested in what is being said.

Anticipatory Set: Remind students about voice. You may want to draw parallels to the active listening units. When you were doing active listening you were asking questions to get information. Sometimes words, phrases, and intonations changed meanings completely. Look for that in these passages.

Instruction: Place the passage on the overhead and have a student read it aloud. Ask for opinions about the piece--what did they think about the writing, specifically its voice? See if they can come up with single word descriptions of the voice in this piece-exciting? interesting? emotional? personal? engaging? sincere? What questions come to mind--who? what? when? where? why? how?--as they look at this writing? If they don't have a lot of questions, discuss its strengths. How would they score this for voice using the Six Trait Scoring Guide?

Group Practice: With a partner, have students discuss the criteria for strong voice and rewrite the passage, attempting to "voice it down." Reread the original "voice-rich" writing, then have the groups share aloud their new "voiceless" versions. Talk about what was added or changed to take out the voice

Evaluation: Their goal is to earn a "1" in voice for this piece.

Passages: Once again I like to use the students’ own work. I also like to use passages my kids have read and really like. This can range from a paragraph or two from Roald Dahl or Dr. Seuss.

The next subset of lessons deals with the African American Dialect, specifically the use of “be.” We have been talking about voice in speaking and writing. I feel most students want to write in authentic voice but know that the traditional model of grammar makes them shy away from attempting to write. My purpose in these exercises is to show the students the differences between prescriptive and descriptive grammar. Towards the end I hope to show them that grammar is a malleable thing they can use to add voice to their work.

Lesson 6: Be in African American Dialect

Goal: To explain the differences between prescriptive and descriptive grammar using “be” in African American dialect. For example, what are the grammatical rules found in the following sentence: “They usually be tired when they come home from school”?

Anticipatory Set: Define the differences between prescriptive and descriptive grammar. Prescriptive is the traditional model of grammar we are used to. It is the set of agreed upon rules that English language users follow. Descriptive grammar attempts to describe what happens in everyday usage. Descriptive grammar sounds like it doesn’t have rules, but it does as we will see in the following exercise. You should talk about the use of the word “be” in African American dialect – don’t give out the grammatical rule until the end of the assignment. Because of our culture and media, students should be aware of this in African American speech but are probably unaware of the grammatical underpinnings. You should also talk about voice at the end of the exercise. With the use of “be” what did it tell you about the author’s voice?

Instruction: Pass out the handout. Have the students decide which one of the pairs sounds more authentic, which has the real voice.

Individual Practice: Students complete the handout and then come back to the larger classroom to discuss what they found. I would answer the first three. After each one, ask the class if they have found the grammatical rule for the use of “be.” After the third one, explain to the class the rule that you can only use “be” for habitual action – not action that occurs immediately or for things that are constantly permanent. For example, you can say: They usually be tired after school; but not Today they be tired after school or She be my mother. Keep going over the handout. After the handout is completed you should quickly discuss voice. The use of “be” adds a distinct voice to a piece of work. What did it add. Have them reflect on how this is incorrect in prescriptive grammar but is correct in descriptive grammar and how they may want to use this in their own language to showcase their own voice.

Evaluation: The completed handout and a class discussion that students can then apply to their own written work. They can begin to think how they can use writing to capture their voice.

Handout

The Use of Be in African American Dialect

In this handout we will be looking at the use of the word be in African American dialect. The form be is used where other dialects use am, is, or are, but in this dialect, be has a special meaning. People who use this dialect can tell when and where it is used appropriately. In the sentence pairs below, choose the one that seems to fit better. If you are not sure of the answer, make your best guess. Check off the sentence you think to be the best use of be.

1.      a.____They usually be tired when they come home from school.

b.____They be tired right now.

2.      a.____My arm be broken from the fall.

b.____My arm be itching.

3.      a.____Steve usually don’t be in school.

b.____Steve don’t be in school today because he’s sick.

4.      a.____Tina be my sister.

b.____Tina be in my gym class.

5.      a.____Felix be going to the movie with me.

b.____Felix be going to the movies every Friday.

[Answers: 1.a, 2.b, 3.a, 4.b, 5.b]

Lesson 7: Southern United States Vowel Pronunciation

Goal: To show students another case where prescriptive grammar fails to capture a given set of language users’ real voice, this time in vowel pronunciation found in the Southern U.S. Hopefully students are also starting to see patterns in language. They saw a distinct descriptive grammar pattern in the African American dialect and they should see another pattern in this exercise.

Anticipatory Set: Remind students of lesson six: that grammar is a useful tool for their writing. It can be used to capture a writer’s voice even though at first it seems to stifle their voice. This time we are shifting from the African American dialect into the vowel pronunciation found in the Southern U.S..

Instruction: Pass out the handout. Have the students identify if you are pronouncing the vowels the same or differently. I can rely on my time spent in Oklahoma but it may be better for you to tape someone with a Southern accent pronounce the following words.

Evaluation: Completed handout and class discussion. Be sure to emphasize the voice that comes through the speaker. Be conscious to mention the differences and how this dialect can be used to affect on the audience.

Handout:

Southern U.S. Vowel Pronunciation

In some Southern United States dialects, words like pin and pen are pronounced the same, usually both sounding like pin. This can also be found in other word pairs. List A has words where the i and e are pronounced the same. As I read the list [or play the tape], listen to see if they sound the same.

List A: i and e pronounced the same

1.      tin and ten

2.      kin and ken

3.      windy and Wendy

4.      sinned and send

Although the words in List A are pronounced the same, other word pairs are not. Once again listen to the list of words, paying close attention to the i and e, in List B and see if they are pronounced the same.

List B: i and e pronounced the differently

1.      lit and let

2.      pick and peck

3.      pig and peg

4.      litter and letter

Compare List A and List B and try to determine the rule. Hint: Look at the sounds following the vowels.

What sound is found after all the vowels in the examples given in List A? [answer: n]

Is the same sound found in List B? [no] Write a descriptive grammar rule that explains the pronunciation of i and e pronunciation in Southern U.S. dialect.

Now see if your rule is correct by applying it to the pairs of words found in List C. In the space provided mark S if the vowels are pronounced the same and D if the vowels are pronounced differently. After you are done, listen to me [or the tape] say the words and see if you’re correct.

List C: Same or Different?

1.____              bit and bet

2.____              pit and pet

3.____              bin and Ben

4.____              Nick and neck

5.____              din and den

[answers: 1.d, 2.d, 3.s, 4.d, 5.s]

Did your descriptive grammar rule apply successfully to List C? If not, try to rewrite your rule so that it does apply.

Documentation

Culham, Ruth. 6-Trait Writing Model. Portland: Northwest Regional Educational Library, 1998.

            A curriculum unit that focuses on six items in student writing. A concise and easy way to               teach language arts.

Garrity, Carla and Kathryn Jens, William Porter, Nancy Sager and Cam Short-Camilli. Bully Proofing Your School: A Comprehensive Approach for Elementary Schools. Sopris West: Longmont, 1999.

            A school-wide curriculum unit designed to change the atmosphere of the school. It focuses on bullying behavior and how to make your school a caring community.

Hughes, Rebecca and Micheal McCarthy. “From Sentence to Discourse: Discourse Grammar and              English Language Teaching.” TESOL Quarterly v.32 n.2. Summer 1998: 263-288.

A concise article focusing on the current linguistic debate between prescriptive and descriptive grammar. Addressing more the debate as it relates to English as a second language teachers, it is still a valuable read for language arts teachers.

New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution. Student Mediation in Secondary Schools: Training              and Implementation Guide. Albuquerque: New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution,              1995.

A student based mediation curriculum that has units addressing active listening, conversational techniques, and language usage.

O’Donnell, Victoria, and Garth Jowett. Propaganda as a Form of Communication. In T.J. Smith(Ed.), Propaganda. (pp.49-64). New York: Praeger Press, 1989.

         A study into how governments use specific words to influence a specific audience.

Tannen, Deborah. That’s Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Your                Relationships to Others. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1986.

An interesting look into the linguistic field of discourse analysis. Tannen especially looks at how and what we do in conversation that leads to misunderstanding and miscommunication. Tannen makes you aware of the patterns you use as an English speaker you hadn’t realized you used.

---. The Argument Culture: Moving from Debate to Dialogue. New York: Random House, 1989.

Tannen takes her study of discourse analysis and applies it to the field of politics and media.             An interesting look into how even the media and government fall into dysfunctional
            “conversational” patterns.

Wolfram, Walt. Linguistic and Sociolinguistic Requisites for Teaching Language. In J.S. Simmons &               L Baines (eds.). Language Study in Middle School, High School, and Beyond.
            (pp.79-111). Newark: International Reading Association, 1998.

A brief look at many of the debates facing language arts teachers today in the field of               linguistics including interesting looks at grammar and dialects.