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Music’s Impact on American Culture:
The Antebellum Period 

Jeff Mullen

Academic Setting

Grant Middle School, 1111 Easterday N.E., between Eubank and Wyoming, off Lomas Boulevard, has a student population of about 700, which averages about 225 students per grade level.  We also have the District’s Behavioral Intervention Program (BIP) house in the facility.  We have approximately 150 transfer students among our population who come from all over the district.  Once at Grant, transfer students stay until they move on to high school.  Grant feeds about sixty percent to Sandia High School and forty percent to Manzano.  Because of our policy regarding the acceptance of transfer students, we feed three to four students to every high school in the district.   

            Grant is located in a middle-income neighborhood area.  The school is used as a community center in the evenings and on weekends.  Although we are largely middle-income, approximately thirty percent of our students are on a free or reduced lunch program.  Our student population is approximately: 50 percent Anglo, 5 percent Black, 35 percent Hispanic, 4 percent Indian, 1.5 Asian, and .5 percent other.   

            Academically, our school has a no waiver program which means if a student fails two subjects three of each of the four nine weeks grading period, then the student must go to summer school to make up credits lost or be retained in that grade level.    

Context and Background 

One of the core courses in middle school is social studies, which is taught at each grade level.  Social studies by definition, is the study of history, the environments in which people live, the interaction of people, government and political science.   Many times all that is described is included in the events of an historical period, and teachers neglect the teaching of cultural aspects; music, literature, art, dance, dress, and entertainment of the time period they are studying.  

Music has been important to every cultural group and region throughout history.  One of the main problems we as teachers currently face is that the available textbooks cover the performing and visual arts, music, and literature in about ten pages total for all of U.S. history. Certainly the arts play a more important role than that in the study of history, and addressing that would require devoting more than a few pages to each era.  For me the problem is multi-faceted:  First, how does a teacher divide history into time frames where the music, culture, and events affect one another?  Is this best done by identifying the historical period such as the Civil War and then fitting the study of music of that era to that subject? For me, as a certified social studies teacher, it makes more sense to begin with my strength and base of knowledge and then include the study of the music and/or performing arts as an additional, enriching, motivational aspect to the study of a particular period of time. Second, how does a teacher who does not play an instrument or sing, and who is not particularly knowledgeable about music, find sources and examples of the music to represent what is occurring in the time period being studied? For me, that is the reason for having taken this class and to have access to the library system at the university and to all the resources available in the school district. 

My primary goal is to expose the students to various types of music through out U.S. history, and to understand the importance of the music during the time period being studied.  I will start with the Native Americans and their music and bring the studies through modern times.  Because of time restrictions during this course of study, I focused on the 1830s through the Civil War.  The basic format used for this unit would be similar for other units.   It could also be expanded to cover other topics such as art, literature, clothing, and entertainment.  A second theme within this activity would be for students to learn how to research, use technology (Power Point), and give presentations, with notes, but without reading the notes. 

Objectives 

The reason for studying music in America is that most textbooks devote very little study to the arts: literature, art, and music, from the Pre-Columbian period through the Civil War.  The same is true from Reconstruction to modern day.  The goal is to expose students to the study of music throughout America’s history with its affect upon and reaction to political, geographic, and social history. The unit also includes the study of music as a motivator and memory tool for the study of history. 

State curriculum and performance for social studies standards include:
1 D Research historical events and people from a variety of               perspectives.
2 B Explain the physical and human characteristics of places and use this knowledge to define regions, their relationships with other regions, and their patterns of change.
3 B Explain the significance of symbols, icons, songs, traditions, and leaders of New Mexico and the United States that exemplify ideals and provide continuity and a sense of unity. 

Introduction 

When studying the Civil War Era, it is often difficult to motivate middle school students.   Students typically believe that this will be a list of battles, dry speeches, and names of generals with no relevance to their present day situations. Unfortunately, it is often that and not much more.  I recommend devising plans to engage the students and to draw parallels to modern events.  

Middle school students, as early adolescents, are very interested in the latest musical trends.  Many of these trends have roots traceable to our African American population of Pre-Civil War and Civil War Eras.  How much more enthusiastically might our students embrace a study of the 1830s to the later 1860s if it included listening to music and studying performances of plays and dance?   

In writing about the music of this period and how it evolved into other forms, its acceptance by the mainstream and how it illustrated the political feelings and political changes makes the study of history come alive for the student.  If the instructor requires the student to analyze and draw parallels to modern events, critical thinking skills are enhanced.  The lyrics and the performances of black face minstrels from 1830s to the Civil War, provide an excellent means of launching discussions and studies of the history of the civil rights movement in America. 

The contrast of the evolution of music peculiar to America as opposed to the classical styles of Europe could be used to enhance the political differences between the continents.   The melting pot description of a growing America may be studied and critiqued through arts very effectively.  

Northern Mainstream Music of the 1830-1865 

Music of the northern mainstream (middle and upper income groups) was conservative in taste, primarily religious, and of European origin or derivation.   With the import and later building in America, of organs and pianos, harpsichords and violins, music became a staple in the American households.    Entertainment in the home was often musical in nature.  Theater in the early United States encountered problems from various religious groups and inadequate disposable income of the populace to attend such events. 

            With the coming of musical instruments, religious music and vocal music changed in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. At this time various musicians were compiling collections of music and having them published.  Music schools were established.  Lowell Mason, an accomplished musician, compiled music and had it published under the “Handel and Hayden Society’s” name, which helped raise the level of “acceptable” music.  After starting his own singing school, Mr. Mason convinced the Boston Public Schools to have singing classes as part of their curriculum.  Between private lessons and the public schools, the public now had an opportunity to learn to sing and to appreciate music.  Well-to-do women with time on their hands required singing instructions and instrumental lessons to be considered proper members of society. 

            Boston became the center of change in music.  The change was reflected in a move from religious music, such as psalms, to the more secular symphonies.   The composition and performance of symphonies were considered a measure of the culture of the people.  As this change occurred, performances of operas, if not in English than paraphrased into English, became more common.  At concerts the audience expected the orchestra and chorus to be able to play not only the music prepared for the concert but music of the streets as well  (Broyles 17). 

           Concerts by local and touring professionals, such as Jenny Lind, a Swedish opera singer, who performed with P.T. Barnum, exposed the populace to a greater variety of music. Along with black-faced minstrels, groups like as the Hutchinson Family, sang a variety of songs.  The Hutchinson family shows included music about temperance and anti-slavery, “Get Off the Track,” (Lawrence 305) as did other performers of this era.  Theaters were being built for concerts, plays, and operas. Trenton Hall and Chestnut Street Theater were among the first built for audiences of up to two thousand people (Tawa 379).  Americans were composing music, of operatic style, ballads, hymns and other religious and popular music, all helping to establish and define a distinctive American culture.    

            After the Revolutionary War, young men were required to participate in a militia unit, and they often had military bands.  These bands performed for their military units and the local populace exposing the citizens to military music and contemporary styles of the day (Crawford 272). 

            Religious music always has been important in the United States.  In the 1840s William Miller, a preacher, predicted the Day of Judgment, and that prediction led some devoutly believing individuals to go insane or commit suicide.  A collection of music was made and published as The Millennial Harp.  Groups similar to the Hutchinson family sang some of this music. 

            During every time period songs are written about many things; the occurrences that make life interesting and those which define life.  This is especially true of the time from the 1830’s through the Civil War.  This music often was directed at individuals in history, government, current events, and often was patriotic in nature.  Some of this music commentary was spiritual in nature, other music was written so the people could dance, some was serious and other was written, satirically perhaps, about the hilarity of an event, as evidenced in the composition of The Wheelbarrow Polk (Lawrence 337).   Today it seems that every event needs a song and the same was true of our forefathers. 

            Music was important to the populace of the nineteenth century because it was one of the primary forms of entertainment.  Without electricity, with lanterns and the sun as the only forms of light, there was not a great deal of variety in things to do.  With some training on the playing of an instrument, people could provide their own entertainment. 

African-American Contributions in Music 

Black people of the 1830’s to 1865, both free and enslaved, contributed much to United States musical history.  The basics of their music came from their homeland in Africa.   They brought with them talents needed for playing instruments, singing, and dancing.  Sometimes their talents were quickly noticed and vendors sold their wares through song, akin to the musically accompanied commercial of present day America. 

            Free African-Americans in the North had more opportunities to acquire the musical skills needed to further their position in life than those who were free or enslaved in the South.   Francis Johnson, a black man who lived in the northern states, became a teacher, bandleader, and composer.  His band, consisting primarily of woodwinds, played concerts for all races for a variety of functions.   When the group added string instruments, his band then played for balls.  He, at times, improvised the music. Although Mr. Johnson became acclaimed for his musical abilities, his support was not equal to that of white performers of equal or lesser abilities.  Another black musician from the north, Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield, was sold, freed, and adopted by a Quaker family, and was supported by this family in her singing career.  As a soprano, she achieved notoriety as “The Black Swan. (Southern 103).  While both of these people gave concerts and were widely accepted in Europe, they found little support in the United States. 

            Music in many of the Northern churches began to incorporate spirituals and other music with a black influence into their worship.  Black churches were proud of their music with its African roots and rhythm and created their own hymns and forms of worship as they felt it was more indicative of their culture.  The feeling was that the African-American music they created was more responsive to them (Southern 131). 

            Music of the South was frequently played by free Blacks, slaves, and Creoles.  These people played for dances, and for entertainment purposes, often in taverns, thereby earning extra money.  When plantations had visitors, slaves who could sing, play an instrument, or dance often entertained these visitors.  Frequently slave masters purchased instruments for the slave who had musical talents (Small 38). 

Music was a very important part of slave life.  While working, there was usually a slave song leader to lead the group in song.  Often if slaves were not singing, the master made them sing as a way to insure that they were not causing trouble.  Singing also provided a rhythm to which work could be done more quickly and efficiently.  The mind was expected to be busy and so the leader’s songs told the story of how he felt that day.  At night after the work was completed, the slaves sang as an avenue for escape, dignity, and meaning.  Songs many times had hidden or double meanings so that the masters could not know what the slaves were thinking or planning. Because the slaves sang while they worked and again while they relaxed, an appearance of  “happy” slaves was created (Southern 177). 

             Due to restrictions on a slave’s literacy and education, singing was done in the form of “lining out,” or response singing.  Some churches for slaves were led by black preachers, and while they did try to teach reading, most singing was from memory.  Slaves took the readings from the Bible and turned them into songs for their use.  The Underground Railroad used songs as a way of communicating.   Songs informed the slaves when a conductor was coming.  For example “Egypt” refers to the South and “Canaan” meant going to Canada. The conductors also had their own songs by which to identify themselves (Southern 144). 

            During the Civil War, black units composed of former slaves and free blacks, had bands and formed glee clubs.  After a day’s work, both groups would play or perform.  Music was for recreation and to relieve tensions of the day.  Among the favorites were “John Brown’s Body,” and “Battle Hymn of the Republic.”  In the latter, black units changed the words to fit their needs of expression (Southern 209). 

            Music of the African-Americans was rooted in their African culture and need for communication with each other. The heritage they have provided American music is rich and varied from religious to secular, from the spiritual to modern jazz. It would be very interesting for students in history who also study music at school, particularly those in the jazz band and choral classes, to trace the roots of modern jazz or the roots of the modern Gospel music as we study this period in history. 

Black Faced Minstrels from 1830s through 1865 

(Word of caution, words used of the time period to describe or reference African-Americans or Black Americans, be they free or slave, are used in the vernacular and are not in good taste today.) 

The United States had no long-standing and well-defined cultural tradition as found in European counties of this era. Because of industrialization, people were moving from rural areas into cities looking for jobs. White entertainers and performers in the cities observed both slaves and free Blacks in the way they walked, moved, dressed, danced, talked, sang, and interacted.  They then incorporated many of these elements into their performances.  This is illustrative of the fact that the black man in this time period in America had no rights, was believed to be of lesser intelligence and worth, and therefore, copying his actions was often perceived to be very humorous.   

The minstrel shows were also called Ethiopian groups.  The Virginia and Christy Minstrels were the most famous, portraying slaves as mentally inferior; they were emotional children needing protection, creating ambivalence toward slavery among the free white population.  Free Afro-Americans were silly buffoons who were “unhappy” and “wanted to return to the plantations.”  Songs such as My Old Kentucky Home and Swanne River symbolized the desire to go back to the plantations. By creating caricatures and stereotypes all African-Americans were to be laughed at, thus helping to create a racial caste system.  By portraying African-Americans in the negative, all other people had someone to whom they were superior (Toll 67). 

Shows played to the whims of the audience.  If this was not done, the group would be pelted with items, forcing a change in the repertoire.  Shows included instrumental music, as well as vocal music, and often might have included the fiddle, banjo, tambourine, and “bones.”   Performers had names, which usually referred to the instruments they played, Mr. Tambo or Mr. Bones.     Songs included many by Stephen Foster, Oh Susanna, and were sung in the dialect of the African-American people as well as folk songs and ballads.  Ballads usually dealt with women and children, “Mary Blane” and “Lucy Neal” are two examples of this type of ballad (Mahar 317).  Skits were about various topics, usually about how slaves made fun of their masters.  Performers took plays and operas and modified them to fit the theme of the shows, which often lacked sincerity.  Occasionally a show would have a serious side expressed in some of the music or dialogue.   Some shows had real African-Americans as actors and participants if there were an entertainer with admirable ability in one type of performance. 

 At times, other forms of entertainment were presented within the shows.   Since the audience usually consisted of lower and middle class people, the performers were able to successfully make fun of professionals, particularly doctors and lawyers.  The breaking up of a slave family touched the hearts of the audience because they could relate it to their own families.  This preference is indicative of the strong family values of this era.  Sex between the slave and his/her master demonstrated the morality of the master and the widely held belief that the slave was merely a piece of property to be used as the master wished.  Harriet Beecher Stowe’s book, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, was acted out but with a change in the portrayal of Tom to bring a more lighthearted touch to this otherwise serious work (Toll 97). 

About 1850 the actors discussed the brutality of slavery, yet after emancipation, performances strongly suggested that the freed slaves should stay in the South.  Black soldiers were portrayed as incompetent, yet the argument was made that they as African-Americans, were earning their freedom (Toll 117).   Riots and death and other darker aspects of the slavery issue were never a topic for the minstrels.   

            As entertainment, black face minstrel shows provided entertainment for the lower and middle classes at the expense of African-Americans without their realizing the contributions of the people whom they felt were inferior.  This situation and attitude can be discussed with relevance to the evolution of black history in the United States and the development of what was to become the very important political issue involving civil rights.  Exploring the civil rights movement through its roots in American theater and music, rather than just trying to understand the historical tone of the period, is a meaningful way to allow students to come to a more complete understanding of the issue.  Understanding the change in attitude when considering those of a different color as buffoons to valuable, contributing members of society is so clearly illustrated in the study of this era of performance.   It might be helpful to use a compare and contrast strategy with modern music to help clarify this point.   

Music During Wartime - 1830-1865 

Early American military music had specific purposes.  This music played by fife, drums, or bugle gave signals, sent orders during battles, controlled daily activities while in camp or quarters, controlled large numbers of troops while moving, marching from place to place, and cheered up the soldiers.  Songs were also sung for the latter two purposes.  Since many soldiers could play instruments, a unit could easily form a band.  Music played by bands during times of war was often used during recruitment campaigns.  

Songs often had themes of worship, nationalism, love of home and family, remembering past battles and keeping alive the memory of those who had given their lives, demonizing the other side, and sometimes were also nonsensical in tone and lyrics.   In the time period 1830 –1865, there are also a few songs about the Mexican-American War.  The making of villains of the leaders of Mexico, and the heroic efforts of the Americans are found in the songs that quickly come to mind such as, “Remember the Alamo” (Remember the Alamo). 

Whatever the reason for the songs, both sides would sing them, and in the Civil War, both sides would sing some of the same songs.  The Civil War has many songs representing both sides of the conflict and many of the same lyrics.  “When Johnny Comes Marching Home” is a stellar example.   We see, as might be expected in such a conflict, nationalism for both sides; “Dixie” and “Battle Hymn of the Republic,” are examples of such nationalistic spirit.  One instrumental from the Civil War still being used today is the trumpet or bugle favorite, “Taps” (Lilies). 

Music during wartime is sung and played to gain strength and courage for upcoming events.  Various songs provided hope as heard in the lyrics of “Battle Hymn of the Republic,” comfort, in the words of “When Johnny Comes Marching Home,” laughter and humor in the words of “Goober Peas,” and an escape mechanism that might be found in “Polly Waddle Doodle.”  Given a need, a song was available to provide the needed cure (Civil War Music). 

Implementation 

Introduction 

The teacher will divide the study of United States’ history into the following particular time periods: Native America, before Columbus to modern day, Columbus through the Revolution, 1962 – 1830, the period of the Civil War, 1830-1965, Reconstruction, 1870-1900, the turn of the century and American involvement in world affairs, 1900s through World War I, 1919, the period of the 1920’s through World War II, 1945, the late 1940s to the early 1960’s, Viet Nam era to present day. 

Goals 

Ultimately the teacher will begin and study each unit by using music of the era to motivate and enrich the study of the time period, involving students in research projects that use the public library, encyclopedias, and the Internet.  Using www.google.com allows the student to seek information and find that information that most relates to their topics. This teacher feels that this is where most of the information will be found and is most accessible to middle school students while at the same time enhancing their use of technology. For the first year, the teacher will provide this study for the period of the 1830’s through the Civil War as outlined for the purpose of this paper. 

Teacher will:                 A) Define and outline the music to be studied into groups based on region
                                    or culture.

                             B) Provide a list of possible projects including, but not limited to: performance by music students, Power Point presentations, listening to and explaining certain categories of music of this time period to serve as an enrichment activity for the study of history. 

                                    C) Provide kazoos and tambourines, materials for the making of sand blocks and small drums and triangles in order to have a class performance of the “Battle Hymn of the Republic.”

                                    D) Contact one of the district’s music coordinators to be a resource person about halfway through the research part of the project and lead discussion and provide more insight into the music, which is being studied.

                                    E) Through resources available in the community and using the advice of various musicians in our school community, contact a group who performs music of this time period to give a concert for social studies students.  

The student will:      A) List the major events of a set time period studied.

B)       Find examples of the instruments played during the time period and examples of what the instrument sounds like, using information from the Internet, pictures copied or drawn from library sources, recordings available through the school music, program or library or the district’s music coordinator.

C)      Explain why this music is important to the time period and what its contributions to the culture and society are.

D)      Find and play examples of the music.

E)       List composers of the time period and give examples of their music.

F)       Explain why a composer’s music is important historically and culturally.

G)      Explain how this music was received at the time it was written and performed.

H)      Explain any future impact that this music might have.  

From 1830 through the Civil War, music can be broken into four different categories.  The first is music of the mainstream European derivation, created by and performed primarily by white people for white people.  The second category would be music created and performed by Black people, both free and slave.  Both categories should include religious music.  The third category would be blackface minstrels.  The final category would be music during the Civil War with the emphasis being military in nature. 

Music of the mainstream society (white European descendants).

A.       Religion

1.      Instruments

2.      Songs

3.      The importance of Lowell Mason

B.       Secular

1.      Lowell Mason as the founder of music in the schools.

2.      Hutchinson family and their importance to vocal music.

3.      Jenny Lind and the tie to the theatric music.

4.      Theater 

C.       Sources

1.      http://www.cyberhymnal.org/bio/m/a/mason_l.htm

2.      http://www.orgel.com/music/lisn-e.html 

3.      http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/award97/rpbhtml/

4.      http://www.geocities.com/unclesamsfarm/hutchinsons.htm

5.     http://www.bartonpara.com/civilwar/jw/abolhymn.htm

6.     http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/foster/peopleevents/p_lind.html 

Afro-American music
           A.        Free

1.   Francis Johnson and his contribution of the variety of the black genre

2.   Elizabeth Greenfield, The Black Swan, and her accomplishments.

B.        Slave

1.   Spirituals

2.   Underground Railroad and its contribution to the spread of “black” music to the north. 

C.        Sources

1.   http://www.library.upenn.edu/special/keffer/johnson.html  

2.   http://www.nhmccd.cc.tx.us/contracts/lrc/kc/music-1.html 

3.   http://search.eb.com/blackhistory/micro/736/14.html 

Black faced Minstrels

A.        Reason for Minstrels, their socio-economic place in the country; how they influenced political situations

B.          Music

C.        Composers

D.        Sources

1.      http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/foster/sfeature/sf_minstrelsy.html

2.      http://www.royaltyfreemusic.com/volume23.html 

Civil War

A.   Reason for music

B.   Compare and contrast the music of the North with the

      music of the South.  

            C.  Sources

1.      http://users.erols.com/kfraser/music/index.html

2.      http://www.us-civilwar.com/

3.      http://www.besmark.com/civilwar.html 

Desired outcomes 

Upon completion of the study of music, in a defined historical time period, the students will have been exposed to various kinds of music.  The students will understand how the cultural, political, and social events affected the kinds of music being written and played. The students will better understand how music relates to racial, economic, and political groups in our history. 

Evaluation 

The Language Arts/ Literature Department is creating rubrics for presentations to be used by the entire school.  The computer teachers are creating rubrics to be used when students use technology, Power Point or web pages as a form of presentation.  All teachers at all grade levels will use these rubrics.  The goal is for consistency is across the grade levels, and as the students pass to the next grade they will already know what is expected of them.  Thus, teachers will be seeing advancement in the student’s presentation skills.  

Documentation 

Broyles, Michael.  Music of the Highest Class. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992.  

Information is about northern colonies, both sacred and secular music.   Good background information. 

Chase, Gilbert. America’s Music.  Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987.             

A good general information book.  Good place to begin. 

Crawford, Richard. America’s Musical Life, A History.  New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2001. 

Textbook for the class.  Good place to begin to understand the time line divisions of American music. 

Cruz Jon. Culture on the Margins, The Black Spiritual and The Rise of American Culture Interpretation. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1999.  

Good information about the time period discussed in this paper.  Good information about slavery. 

Ferris State University. “Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia” <http://www.ferris.edu/news/jimcrow/menu.htm> 

Excellent insight about Jim Crow and racism.  The viewing and reading found on this site will help create wonderful discussions. 

George, Zelma Watson. A Guide To Negro Music.  New York University, 1953.             

Ms. George’s dissertation.  Interesting point of view and historical information. 

Lawerence, Vera Brodsky. Music for Patriots, Politicians, and Presidents.   New York:                Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.,1975  

A fun book.  Gives the words to music and includes pictures of the sheet music.  Students will enjoy research using this book. 

Lilies, Paul and Sue.  “Music” 27 Aug. 00.
            <http://www.lilesnet.com/music/default.html> 

Web site has patriotic music. 

Lornell, Kip. Introducing American Folk Music. Madison, Wisconsin: Brown & Benchmark Publishers, 1993.            

An easy to understand overview of folk music. 

Lovell Jr., John.  Black Song: The Forge and the Flame.  New York: Macmillan Company, 1972. 

Excellent overview of black songs.  This book has charts which might be useful for classroom discussions.

Mahar, William J. Behind the Burnt Cork Mask.  Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1999.

  Very in-depth look at the black face minstrels.

New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Second Edition Vol.16.   Edited by Stanley Sadie.  MacMillan Publishing Limited 2001. 

Roach, Hildred,  Black American Music, Past and Present. Boston: Crescendo Publishing Co., 1973. 

Root, Deane, Dr.  “People & Events: Stephen Foster, 1826-1864.  <http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/foster/peopleevents/e_aamusic.html> 

            Excellent site for students who are working on research using the computer. 

Sacks, Howard L. and Judith Rose.  Way Up North in Dixie.  Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993. 

Very interesting look at African-American culture prior to and after the Civil War. 

Scots Independent Newspaper Online – The Flag In The Wind.<http://www.electricscotland.com/si/features/singasang/alamo.htm> 

            Songs about the Alamo. 

Small, Christorpher.  Music of the Common Tongue. Hanover: Wesley University Press. 1987. 

Southern, Eileen.  The Music of Black Americans.  New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc.  1997.  (ML3556, S74) 

Tawa, Nicholas E. “Philadelphia: A City in the New World,”  Edited by Neal Gaslaw. The Classic Era. Englewood Cliff, New Jersey:  Prentice Hall, 1989.   

Toll, Robert. Blacking Up The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth-Century America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974. 

Excellent book about the minstrels of the pre Civil War time 

University of Virginia Library.  “Lift Every Voice.” 22 Oct. 01. <http://www.lib.virginia.edu/speccol/exhibits/music/patriotic_overthere.html 

Site has samples of sheet music and their covers from the minstrel time period. 

Watson, Kathy.  “Poetry and Music of the War Between the States.”  15 May 96. <http://users.erols.com/kfraser/>            

Wonderful site providing the lyrics of songs of the Civil War.