Julianne Sanchez's CU

Why Study African American Music?
United States History Unit

Julianne Sanchez

Academic Setting

This unit will be used at Washington Middle School in Albuquerque, New Mexico. It is designed for eighth grade United States social studies classes. Class sizes average twenty-five to twenty-seven students, whose reading levels range from fourth and fifth grade to an occasional eleventh or twelfth grade level. Students in these classes speak English or a combination of English and Spanish.

         The student population at Washington Middle School is very unique. It is truly an inner city middle school, the only one in the state. The students are mostly Hispanic with extremely low incomes. There is a school-wide free lunch program to meet the special needs of these students. A health clinic is also available, on site, to assist with the students’ medical needs. These students, historically, do not perform well on state mandated testing, but do make significant gains from sixth grade to the end of eighth grade. Appropriate clothing and supplies also become issues because of these factors. Other issues that are special to this population of students are regular attendance and high mobility.

         Language acquisition is another important factor at Washington. Three language level educational strands have been developed for the three distinct groups of students attending WMS. There are English only students (with their wide range of reading and writing levels), Spanish only students (with their beginning or nonexistent English skills), and Dual Language students (who are academically literate in both Spanish and English).

                All of these issues are why teaching at schools like this is so important. These kids need teachers who are not only understanding, but also demanding. Interesting curriculum helps keep them coming to school and paying attention. Music is one of the students’ most important communication tools. They are constantly listening and talking about their music. Incorporating it into the social studies curriculum would make it more interesting, not just for the students, but for the teacher.

Context and Background

One of the strands that consistently appears within the curriculum of United States social studies is the history of African-Americans throughout the development and growth of our country.   Opening students’ eyes to the cultural development of a group of people who were forced to come to this country increases students’ understanding of all cultures in conflict. Studying African-American history helps students grasp an understanding of different cultures around the United States at different periods of time. Adding the sensory impact of music to this curriculum will greatly increase their interest and understanding.

                Adding music to this curriculum will also elevate reading comprehension and oral reading skills, without students being aware of the underlying skills development. In the balanced literacy approach, choral reading is a very useful tool for the development of low readers’ skills, without boring higher level readers. Choral reading allows individual students to read (sing) as a group, participating or dropping in and out as skills and interest desire, without being singled out as someone who can’t read. Adding music to the curriculum will also give students the tools and skills necessary to meet Washington’s School Improvement Goal of Highest Student Achievement in a Language Appropriate Environment.

Musical Context

Washington students need instruction in basic musical terminology, its application to varieties of music, and the historical context of music to develop intellectual discussions about why they like or dislike a piece. Having a common vocabulary also creates an atmosphere of commonality and community, no matter what culture a student comes from. These terms should be learned while proceeding through early American history, using musical examples whenever possible (see Historical Context), leading up to the actual unit on slave music.

A discussion of musical terminology begins with the topic of genre or groupings of music by form and style. Rhythm and poetry (RAP), rock & roll, blues, jazz, gospel, R& B, classical, opera, marches, country and western are a few of the genres explored here.

RAP music is one of the first genres explored because of its popularity among Washington’s students. It is defined as “a kind of pop music that first appeared during the 1970s in New York ... where words are spoken rhythmically rather than being sung to a tune” (Kingfisher 122). Initially it was performed by black youth in the inner cities during the period when the United States’ economy was changing from national to global, and companies were down-sizing for the global market. Inner city black youth (mostly male) developed RAP as an expression of their frustrations against and about a society where they are economically at the bottom. RAP also establishes a culture of belonging (having family) through music and common themes, as evidenced by gangsta rap. Gangsta rap is “the most controversial and frequently criticized of all rap genres” (Stewart 265). It involves highly profane, sexist, and violent language, with explicit uncensored stories about the realities of inner city life. A good example is Ice T’s “Freedom of Speech.” Female rappers have now become popular, with angry tunes about the sexist thoughts and language in some male rappers tunes. Some influential female rappers are Queen Latifah (Dana Owens), Salt-N-Pepa, Roxanne Shante, and BWP (Bytches with Problems). Most of this music is inappropriate for playing in the classroom, but students have an independent knowledge of this music that makes it an appropriate genre for discussion.

                The rock and roll genre is discussed next due to the “skaters” interest in punk rock, which is a sub-genre of rock. Rock and roll is described as “black rhythm and blues but packaged and marketed for white teenage audiences, chiefly by white performers” (Crawford 722). This musical development came in the 1950s, at a time in United States’ history when generational conflict had just begun. After World War II, American teenagers’ feelings of confusion, of being out of place and of belonging nowhere were exemplified in the music of rock and roll. Rock music differs from blues and folk music because it “embraces technology and avidly pursues commercial success” (Crawford 733). Elvis Presley was the teen icon in the mid 1950s. His popularity was due in large part to advances in technology of the time (radio, TV, and the mass media) and in the purchasing power of teenagers. Most of the media was aimed at the specific audience of teenagers and their feelings of disillusionment. Listening to and watching Elvis was an act of rebellion shared by thousands of white teenage girls. This allowed them to feel rebellious, without having to be rebellious. Chuck Berry, Little Richard, and Bo Diddley are other musicians who brought in the age of rock and roll. “The rise of rock and roll turned the cultural identity of American youth in an interracial direction” (Crawford 735). White teenagers who listened to and bought rock and roll had little idea of the racial inequalities that they were transcending. Punk rock is the 1970s version of unruliness against rock’s commercialism and rock musicians’ greed. One punk rocker’s goal is to stay away from money in order to stay in touch with the common people, which is the musical element rockers lose when aspiring to commercial success. Some groups “skaters” listen to in their age of rebellion are Blink 182, Weezer, and Greenday.

                Blues is the next genre explored due to its influence on rock and roll, rap, jazz, gospel, and other later genres, Blues music is derived from the South’s work songs sung by slaves. It has the typical “call and response” pattern of these songs, but with messages of hope and optimism about the joys and struggles of everyday life. “The anger, sadness, pain, and determination expressed by the blues singer give the song its power” (Medearis 17). The “blue note” is a key to playing the blues. These are notes flattened or bent, giving the music a mournful quality. Blues developed from an oral tradition and as such were not written down until W.C. Handy’ s composition “St. Louis Blues,” in 1914. This was the beginning of blues’ written history. The blues is a popular avenue for female singers to discuss their own issues concerning men, love, and hard lives. Mamie Smith, Gertrude “Ma” Rainey, Bessie Smith, Edith Wilson, and Ida Cox were early blues classical performers. Early in the history of recorded blues music, it was promoted as “race” music, meaning it was “black music performed by black musicians and sold to the black population” (Crawford 562). With the invention of the electric guitar and its application to blues music in the 1950s, blues became the popular form of entertainment it is today. B. B. King is one of the most well known blues artists of current times.

                The genre of jazz is explored next due to its early connections with blues and its current popularity in the form of “soft jazz.” The term jazz “first appeared in print in San Francisco in 1913 in reference to baseball, meaning pep and enthusiasm” (Crawford 566). This gave the music its label of speed and excitement, but jazz also refers to “a way of performing that was improvised, not written down” (Crawford 564). Early 1900s jazz musicians were Ferdinand Joseph “Jelly Roll” Morton and the Original Dixieland Jazz Band. They became popular during Prohibition, a time in United States’ history when alcohol drinking, selling, and making was illegal. “With its eccentric sounds, earthy rhythms, and the encouragement of brazen dance styles, jazz came to be linked in the public mind with moral drift” (Crawford 567).   This idea changed as jazz changed and developed into swing music. Swing uses big bands to produce the jazz sound.

                Gospel is explored next due to its similarities to jazz and the blues. Its roots are in African-American slave songs, but with the specific themes of religion and spirituality. A mixing of African traditions and beliefs with white protestant Christian beliefs, it was in existence before the 1930s, but became listened to and practiced by the general populace during the Depression. “The musical roots of black Gospel music, are found in the musical practices of black Holiness and Sanctified churches...(Stewart p. 65). These churches were much more accepting of the African-American instruments, rhythms, and vocality additions than the mainstream Protestant black churches. It was written or composed Christian music, unlike spirituals which come out of the oral tradition. The most influential of these composers was Thomas Dorsey. He is known as the “Father of Gospel Music” (Medearis 42). Two of his most well known arrangements are “There’ll Be Peace in the Valley” and “Precious Lord, Take My Hand.” Churches were a great place for musical talent to shine, particularly solo artists. These solo artists tended to be women. Mahalia Jackson and Roberta Martin are two soloists whose skill with gospel music helped make it popular worldwide. Aretha Franklin is a more contemporary solo artist of gospel music, whose skills on the gospel scene influenced her successful work as a rhythm and blues (soul) artist.

                R &B, or rhythm and blues is the next genre explored. The term rhythm and blues came into existence on July 25, 1949. This is when “Billboard’s” charting of music sales changed its “race” category of music (music performed by and/or targeted at African-Americans) into rhythm and blues. R &B’s earliest days were rooted in the Boogie-woogie blues of popular dance music, performed by small combo bands, and sung with “gospel-influenced vocality”(Stewart 205). Its lyrics are based on urban life and backgrounds. The “Father of Rhythm and Blues” was saxophonist Louis Jordan. He and his group, the Timpani Five, had their first hits , “Knock Me a Kiss” and “Outskirts of Town” in this new genre of music. But with their hits “Let the Good Times Roll,” “Ain’t Nobody Here But Us Chickens,” “Choo Choo Ch’boogie,” and “Saturday Night Fish Fry,” Jordan and his group had “crossed over” to the popular charts and white audiences, major accomplishment for a black audience of his day. In the late fifties and early sixties, rhythm and blues music spawned soul music. This is R &B with heavy gospel influences in the vocals. Ray Charles exemplifies this style. His first soul hit was “I Got a Woman” in 1954. Sam Cooke is another person who helped soul become what it is today through his writing and compositions. He wrote more that 100 compositions. Some of them are “Nearer to Thee,” “Be with Me Jesus,” “Touch the Hem of His Garment,” and “That’s Heaven to Me” (Stewart 225). His later writing includes “You Send Me,” “A Change is Gonna Come,” “Chain Gange,” “Cupid,” and “Another Saturday Night” (Stewart 226-227). Great soul musicians of today include James Brown, Stevie Wonder and Luther Van Dross.

                Classical music is the genre explored next. It is typically composed music, performed by orchestras in concert halls or by a few instruments as “chamber” music. It is a form of European music in its originality, with structured shape and rules. Johann Sebastian Bach, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, George Frideric Handel, Ludwig van Beethoven, the Strauss family, and Antonio Vivaldi are commonly known European composers. Igor Stravinsky and Claude Debussy are twentieth century European composers who had great influence on American music. Both of them bent the rules of regularly composed music and inserted syncopated rhythms and non-strophic lines into their compositions. Some great American composers are Irving Berlin, Elliot Carter, Charles Ives, Edgard Varese, Milton Babbitt and John Cage. The last three composers were especially focused on sound and its unintentional music, particularly with the addition of the electronic synthesizer. John Cage’s “Williams Mix” is an excellent example of modern composition. Brian Wilson of the Beach Boys is an example of an American composer some musicians would classify as great. His development of “the wall of sound” in “Petsounds” is considered a masterpiece.

                Opera is the next genre examined here due to its closeness with classical music. Opera is musical theater. It is plays or skits told in music (sung). Opera was first performed in Italy around 1600. The first great master of varied and exciting opera was Monteverdi. He added choruses, orchestral interludes, and dance to “song only” operas. Other composers of opera include Mozart, Handel, Verdi, Bellini, Wagner, Strauss, and Stravinsky. The basic components of opera are “a libretto (book of words), singers, an orchestra, a stage, costumes, scenery and a great deal of money”(Scholes 248). Operas tend to be sung in the language of the composer. Scott Joplin was an American opera writer. He wrote “The Guest of Honor” in 1903 and “Treemonisha” in 1911. “Treemonisha” tells the story of an eighteen year old girl who “hopes to lead her community out of ignorance, superstition, and misery by teaching them the value of education” (Crawford 545). Philip Glass and Robert Wilson are contemporary opera composers who were interested in “the visual imagery and spectacle” of opera, weaning theater away from “literature and narrative”(Crawford 832). Other contemporary American operas include “Nixon in China” and “the Death of Klinghoffer” by John Adams.

                Marches are the next genre to explore because of their importance in early American history. The first marches were performed by drums in Europe as armies sizes became enormous, and quick communication was difficult. It was much easier for soldiers to get from one place to another, in an orderly fashion, and at the same time, with the use of drum cadences.   Fifes added tunes to the beat. Other forms of communication such as reveille, retreat, and tattoo were added in England during the 1600s. “When American colonists began to form militia units to fight the War of Independence, they followed the British customs they already knew” (Crawford 84-85). American marches were sung by the general populace in early American history and played by bands, “When George Washington toured the United States in 1789, just before he took office as president” (Crawford 85).   The military also developed bands to play marches, patriotic music, and ceremonial music for its other needs. Both types of bands, marching and ceremonial, employed the use of woodwinds and brass. One of the most well-known and prolific American march composers is John Philip Sousa. “Sousa was seven years old when the Civil War began and twelve when it ended” and he “felt deeply the military cost of the freedom that Americans enjoyed”(Crawford 461). He composed 136 marches. “The Stars and Stripes Forever” (1897) is his most famous. It “glorifies the flag, and its words deliver a warning to potential enemies” (Crawford 462).   Other American march performers and band leaders were David Wallis Reeves, Herbert Clark, Arthur Pryor and Helen May Butler, presenting “music for the American people, by American composers, played by American girls” (Crawford 465).

                Country and western is the genre examined next because of its roots in the “folk” of America and their “settlement” of the United States. The cowboy music of the 19th century is one of the most well known aspects of country music. The song “Home on the Range” is an excellent example. It was first published in 1876 and showed the “romanticized” image of the cowboy. It suggests “to the superior male beings who live there (the West) that home is not just a domestic arrangement but a state of mind” (Crawford 435). But not all frontier music was a romanticized version of the West. “The Captain of the Cowboys,” written in 1873 to the well-known English tune “Captain Jinks,” tells the hardships of cattle ranching and gives inexperienced cowpokes a stern warning about branding day. “Sweet Betsey from Pike” is another song about the realities of westward travel and living. It tells the story of a couple’s journey across the West. It is a narrative similar to traditional ballads, but does not contain the image of the “virtuous Victorian woman.” For example, Betsey travels across the continent with a man who is not her husband (Ike). They experience many hardships on the trail, arrive in Placerville and get married. But Ike gets jealous, obtains a divorce, and Betsey is happy about it. Certainly not the virtuous woman image of the East and “civilized.” This song does not contain the west’s theme of rugged individualism, but applied to a woman. “Country music flourished in America because the pioneer communities were often very isolated and had to provide their own entertainments-in the form of hoedowns, barn-raising, quilting parties, and so forth” (Scholes 104). It became more widely known with Nashville’s country music radio program “Grand Ole Opry,” in 1925. Today’s country music continues to tell stories of hardship and troubles faced by everyday working class people. “Because Two People Feel in Love” by Brad Paisley, “Not Another Day” by Lonestar, and “I’m Gonna Miss Her” by Brad Paisley are contemporary country hits with these themes. Popular country music today also contains themes of ‘hearkening back’ to the good old days when rugged individualism and conquering the frontier were the American ideals. A good example is Hanks Williams Jr.’s “I’m an Outdoor Loving Man.”

                During the exploration of genre, additional musical terminology should also be added to the curriculum. This enables students to discuss the music they hear with a common vocabulary. The terms necessary to this unit are: pitch and tone, melody, harmony, rhythm, and timbre. Additional vocabulary terms appear when necessary within the descriptions of the above words. The Oxford Junior Companion to Music is an excellent resource for more about these terms.

                Pitch is the height or depth of a note. A common question is whether a note is high or low pitched? Pitch is based on the number of vibrations a note produces. A high note produces more vibrations per second than a low pitch. Pitch is also used for tuning, both musical instruments and voices. “Today there is a general agreement throughout the civilized world as to what the frequency (pitch) of all notes should be” (Scholes 267). This is known as the ‘concert’ pitch, meaning orchestras and instruments tuned to this pitch can produce the same sound.

                Melody is the “oldest ingredient in music, next to rhythm, as we know it today” (Scholes 220). It is a series of notes that makes musical sense to the listener. It is the main speaker of a composition or the ‘voice’ telling the story. A melody is what we hum or sing. Most melodies have a ‘shapely’ curve, “notes moving purposefully towards some sort of climax, then falling away with an equal sense of purpose.”

                Harmony is when two or more notes are sounded together. “If the effect is pleasant to our ears and the notes appear to agree with one another, we call the harmony a ‘concord.’ If the effect is unpleasant and the notes seem to disagree, we say that the harmony is a ‘discord’” (Scholes 164). But there is no absolute rule about what sounds pleasant or unpleasant. “All that can be safely said is that the human ear, given time, seems able to adjust itself to almost any combination of sounds and any method of musical construction” (Scholes 164).

                Rhythm is the beat of the music. It is based on time, whether a note is long or short. It includes the length of notes and rests, how the music is played, which notes are accented or stressed and which ones aren’t. It is the pattern of the music. A ‘bar’ or ‘stanza’ is the group of beats that creates the patterns and divisions of a song or musical composition. The rhythm or beat can be ‘regular’ or ‘on beat,’ with the stress or accent on the first and third counts, or ‘syncopated’ or ‘off beat,’ with the stress or accent on the second and fourth counts.   Rhythm is the “very life-blood of music” (Scholes 280).

                Timbre (pronounced tambre) is the tonal color of a note. It is not whether a note or sound is high or low (pitch), but the kind of sound the note makes. It has to do with the pressure of the sound going through the instrument. For example, a flute playing the exact same note as a trumpet will sound different due to the air pressure flowing through the instrument. A singer can also produce a wide variety of sounds from the same note, by varying the air pressure or musical waves that flow out of her.

Historical Context

Dividing early American music into categories by function is an easily understandable way for students to study it. The four musical functions that are seen in this time period of American history are religion, military/war, work, and pleasure/entertainment. This should be woven throughout the study of early American history, incorporating the musical context vocabulary and examples whenever possible.

                The music of African-Americans began long before Africans were actually Americans. There were many kingdoms throughout Africa, each with its own language. Although the languages were different, many customs were the same. The values of family and community harmony and religion were seen in most kingdoms. Music, storytelling, dance, and sculpting all reflected community, family, and religious themes. Song and rhythm were African methods of communication; around the village, in the fields, between villages, and with the gods. These methods of communication were emphasized as the practice of slavery evolved, and many different tribal groups were brought into contact with each other.

                Each kingdom had trading centers where gold, salt, ivory, and slaves were sold. Slaves were prisoners of war, people who owed money, and criminals. Around the 1100s, the slave trade began to grow. Enslaved Africans were being sold throughout the Islamic Empire by Muslim traders coming into Africa. This practice blossomed as the Portuguese and Spanish comprehended their increased labor needs in the Americas (Central and South). Slavery in North America began in approximately 1619 when the first Africans were brought to Virginia. “Dutch shipping companies were the primary importers of slaves to Virginia until 1660” (Viola 161). The practice was then taken over by the Royal Adventures, a British slave trading company. “Between the 1500s and 1800s, at least 10 million Africans were sent into slavery in North and South America. Some historians claim the real figure was closer to 20 million” (Viola 158).

                A life of unrewarded toil was the life of a slave. But slaves were also determined and resourceful. They became experts at striking back at their masters by accidentally breaking a tool, becoming sick at important times, taking food from the master’s kitchen, and otherwise pretending to be stupid, clumsy, or insane. Of course, escaping to freedom demanded the ultimate expression of will and wits for a slave. Music was a concrete form of resourcefulness employed by African-Americans. Slaves displayed their traditional values and memories, along with the ‘accultured’ values of their white masters in their music and song. Both cultures’ beliefs can be seen in the work, religious, and holiday songs of African slaves in North America.

                Africa’s musical tradition includes mixed rhythmic patterns (polymetric), call-response patterns, freely pursued melodies, scat vocals (vocables), overlapping and simultaneous sounds (polyphony), and exploration of instrumental timbre. Some typical songs include “Go Down, Old Hannah,” “Lost John,” “Chopping the New Ground,” and “Hammer Ring” (Brooks 44). These songs helped workers by pacing their activity, coordinating their movements, and by rallying their spirits.   Another African musical attribute was the singers’ ability to poke fun at or satirize events without fear of retribution, and usually with humor. These traditions are clearly seen in the work songs on the plantations. A clergyman who made his slaves work on Sundays was “sung out of the neighborhood”(Crawford 410) in 1841 because of the slaves’ improvisation and satire while working. A typical call-response pattern is seen, with leader (L) and chorus (C). A portion of the song goes:

L: The parson say his prayer in church.
C: It rain, boys, it rain.
L: Then deliver a fine sermon.
C: It rain, boys, it rain.
L: He cut the matter short my friends.
C: It rain, boys, it rain.

                Boat songs or chanteys were also work songs of slaves in North America. They were mostly sung by slaves working the South Carolina, New Orleans, and coastal Alabama shipyards and the Mississippi River flat boats. These songs were sung to coordinate movements of crew and for navigation purposes. “Heaving the Lead Line” and “Mississippi Sounding Calls” are two examples of chanteys. They are sung to navigate the Mississippi River with ‘soundings.’ The sounding call ‘mark twain’ is used for the depth of twelve feet, just deep enough for boats to pass over. Both forms of work songs (plantation and boat) use traditional African styles, but are based on slave experiences in the New World and in rural life.

                Urban slaves in the north developed work songs of a different kind. Their songs were performed to sell. These slaves were street venders or hucksters, “calling out their wares or offering their services” (Southern 114). These weren’t whole songs, usually just pieces of music. One example is sung by the “Hominy Man” in Philadelphia in the 1920s. It goes like this:

Hominy man come out today
For to sell his hominay.

Hominay man is on his way
For to sell his hominay.

Musical work was different than the work songs already presented. Musical work is here defined as jobs slaves could and did perform using their musical skills and talents. In the South as well as the North, slaves used their music for the entertainment and musical education of white people. Advertisements for the selling of slaves and also for their capture after running away consistently mention these attributes. For example “is a fiddler player and maker,” “plays extremely well on the French horn,” “speaks good English, plays on the fife and German flute,” and “is a mighty singer” (Southern 28-29).   Black musicians performed for white audiences. They provided dance music for colonists of all classes. “Wherever there were dancing and music, there was apt to be a slave musician playing the fiddle or flute or French horn for the dances, whether in the town or on the plantation” (Southern 57). Colonial dancing music utilized the violin, the German flute (fife), and the French horn, all European instruments. Sampson, a slave of Colonel Archelaus Moore, was a fiddler and entertainer in Concord, Massachusetts. Other fiddler performers include Polydor Gardiner, Ceasar, Zelah, Cato, and Robert Prim.

                Instruction in music and dance was also performed by many slaves in the North and South. In the North, “music for formal dances in towns and in the country, and for dancing schools too, was routinely supplied by black musicians” (Crawford 107). In the South, slaves “performed for dancing at their masters’ balls, assemblies, and special ‘Entertainments’” (Crawford 107). Musical instruction for plantation owners’ children was often conducted by slaves. Where the slaves learned to use European instruments is difficult to discover. One answer probably is the early childhood instruction of white children by European trained musical tutors. Slave companions would have learned the playing of instruments and singing along with their white masters. These skills would be used at the masters’ discretion for the lifetime of the slave. If one plantation owner possessed a particularly skilled instructor, other plantation owners would send their children for classes at that plantation. Musical instruction was considered an important part of civilized life, in both the North and the South. Because of this, the color of the instructor’s skin wasn’t particularly important, just the musical skill.

                “By 1786, Pennsylvania and all states north except New Jersey had either abolished slavery or decided how they would do so” (Crawford 108-109). The slave population in the North was also much smaller than the population of the South. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution in the mid-1700s and the creation of Slater’s spinning mills and Whitney’s Cotton Gin, the ‘cotton kingdom’ was established. “Cotton production soared, and with it a renewed demand for slaves to do the work” (Viola 319). While working on these huge plantations of tobacco and cotton, slaves used ‘calls,’ ‘cries,’ and ‘hollers’ to communicate with each other. Calls are described as musical ways “to communicate messages of all kinds-to bring people in from the fields, to summon them to work, to attract the attention of a girl in the distance, to signal hunting dogs, or simply to make one’s presence known” (Courlander 81). They convey simple messages, or merely make one’s whereabouts known to friends working elsewhere in the fields. Here is one example of a call.

Hey Rufus, hey boy---
where in the world you been so long/
Hey buddy, hey boy.---Well
I been in the jungle,
ain’t going there no more. Well I
been in the jungle, aint goin’ there no
more. Hey Rufus, hey boy.

Another typical call would be for the water carrier, who was in constant demand.

Water boy water boy!
Water boy, water boy! Water on the wheel,
how does the sunshine that I feel,
little water time, hey, little water boy,
little water time, hey, little water boy.
Water on the wheel how does the
sunshine that I feel, little water boy.

                Cries are defined as “a form of self-expression, a vocalization of some emotion” (Courlander 81). In 1853, Frederick Olmsted called a night time cry he heard along the railroad tracks “Negro jodling or the Carolina yell” (Courlander 81). Cries can be filled with exuberance or melancholy, or stretched out and embellished with intricate ornamentation, or short phrases.    They usually reflect the mood of the crier. For example:

Ay-oh-hoh!
I’m goin’ up the river!
Oh, couldn’t stay here!
For I’m goin’ home!
So bad, I’m so far from home!
And I can’t get there for walkin’!
I want to go home so bad partner!
I’m goin’ up the river, but I can’t stay here!
I’m goin’ home, woh!
I won’t get back till July and August.
I won’t get there till fall.
My boat up the river.
But I can’t stay here, want to go back!

Cries can also be wordless. Such as:

Woh hoo-oo, woh hoo!
Woh hoo-oo, woh hoo!

And the answer, from a distance would come:

Yeh-ee-ee, yeh-hee!
Yeh-ee-ee, yeh-hee!

                The African musical tradition of call and response patterns are clearly seen in calls and cries. This form of communication became embedded in the slave South, where slave gatherings were often forbidden and very much feared by the white masters. Many slave calls were modeled on African drumming, as this was banned after the Stono Rebellion on September 9th, 1739, in which twenty white slave owners and more than that number of slaves were killed. Drums were a method of communication used to recruit other slaves. Slaves also copied the drum rhythms by ‘patting juba.’ This procedure involved “foot tapping, hand clapping, and thigh slapping, all in precise rhythm” (Southern 168). Slaves in the South remained closer to ‘unacculturated Africans’ than the ones in the North, due to the fears white masters had of future uprisings and to the regular importation of fresh slaves from Africa.

                The different treatments of slaves and philosophies about slavery are clearly seen in the religious practices of the North and the South. In the North, slaves were seen as heathens ready for religious instruction and conversion. Conversion of blacks would “reconcile slaves to their lot in this life and make them more obedient” (Crawford 108). Religious services and practices often contained slave participants. Their seating was usually segregated from the whites, with pews marked ‘BM’ (black male) and ‘BF’ (black female). Religious slave music of the North reflected this conversion process. Slaves took the psalmody practices of Christian churches and put key traits of oral African singing traditions within them. Call response patterns were added, allowing everyone to participate in the singing. Improvisations were also added, allowing for ‘wandering’ refrains. Reverend Richard Allen’s hymnal, published in 1801 for the Bethel Church in Philadelphia, was the first hymn book “assembled by a black author for a black congregation” (Crawford 109).

                The religious philosophies of the South were far different from those of the North. Southerners thought that religion made slaves uppity and gave them too much pride, making them “not as good servants” (Southern 60). “The amount of religious training depended upon their masters”(Southern 59). The slaves that did attend services they either sat on the floor or listened from outside through the windows. The musical parts of the services were the parts the slaves enjoyed the most. These parts were probably closer to the religious practices they had observed in Africa than any other activity they encountered in the New World. The truly African version of slave religious music in the South can be seen in the ‘ring shouts’ held by the slaves after services on Sundays and/or ‘praise nights’ during the week. A shout is a “hymn of exalted spirits with a story and rhythmic drive” (Crawford 417). Here is a description of a typical shout:

The shout begins only when the regular meeting is over. The room is rearranged, with benches ‘pushed back to the wall’ and old and young, men and women, ... all stand up in the middle of the floor. When the singing begins, the shouters begin walking, then shuffling round, one after the other, in a ring. The foot is hardly taken from the floor, and the progression is mainly due to a jerking, hitching motion.... Sometimes they dance silently, sometimes as they shuffle they sing the chorus of the spiritual.... Song and dance alike are extremely energetic, and often, when the shout lasts into the middle of the night, the monotonous thud, thud of the feet prevents sleep (Crawford 417-418).

The songs often simulated the character of chants, with the repetition of the words as the shouters moved in a circle for hours. Their feet wouldn’t leave the floor (shuffle) and could not cross as in a dance. They start out slow, but as the night went on the circling became faster and the shouters covered in sweat. Shouts would also occur in the woods or at camp meetings, wherever slaves congregated for worship.

                Spirituals are extensions of shouts: “Spirituals being primarily rooted in the African musical tradition...of vigorous singing” (Brooks 33). The spiritual was established in the colonies by the late seventeenth century. Spirituals musically represented ideas of love, faith, and humility, all Christian themes. They also used few words to dramatically tell whole Bible stories. Some well-known spirituals include “What You Going t’Do When the Lamp Burns Down?,” “Sometimes I feel Like a Motherless Child,” “Kum Ba Yah, My Lord,” “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot,” “Nobody Knows the Trouble I See,” and “Jesus Loves Me.”   Spirituals displayed the commonality between the sinner’s life in a Christian world and a slave’s life in America. “Both view life as a hard journey, and both hope to find eternal peace when death (freedom) brings release from the ‘vale of tears’” (Crawford 421). The differences were that while slaves were held down by others, sinners were held down by their own misbehavior, and slaves were looking toward freedom as salvation, while sinners were looking towards Christ and life after death as salvation. Although the stories of spirituals often seemed bleak and gloomy, the actual message was one of ‘joyful hope,’ inspired by confidence that slaves would soon be free.

                Spirituals also contained hidden communications for slaves, usually about escaping to the North and freedom. In “Go Down, Moses,” Moses is Harriot Tubman, a conductor on the Underground Railroad. With this song, escaping slaves were signaled to be ready for the journey. Frederick Douglass stated that he and other slaves planning their escape sang “O Canaan, Sweet Canaan” (Southern 129). “The River Jordan” also contained hidden meanings about escaping. The river Jordan alluded to the Ohio River and the freedom its north shores represented. Other allusions to slaves escaping north in spirituals include the Israelites’ battles as slaves’ battles, Elijah’s chariot as the Underground Railroad, and trumpet blasts as freedom day. There is no certainty about the truth of these allusions, but the possibilities and similarities are difficult to ignore. “Bound to Go” or “Members, Don’t Get Weary” were sung to and by slaves who were left behind, when a slave they knew escaped. Perhaps the most well known Underground Railroad song is “Follow the Drinkin’ Gourd,” a map song instructing ‘passengers’ to always travel in the Big Dipper’s direction (north).

                Holidays or celebrations were also celebrated with music by slaves in both the North and the South. “Slave Festivals were held only in the North. Such gatherings were possible in places where slavery was relatively benign, where indulgent owners allowed slaves time off for frolics, where town authorities were not afraid to let huge masses of slaves assemble, where black leaders were respected as much by the local white townspeople as by their own people--and none of these conditions existed in the southern colonies” (Southern 54). Two such celebrations were ‘Lection Day’ and ‘Pinkster Day.’ ‘Lection Day’ festivals were established in Connecticut in the 1750s and occurred each year until the 1850s. They were observed only by blacks and occurred yearly in May or June. Their purpose was for black communities to elect their own government as Kings. The music of these festivals began with the parades and included instruments such as fifes, fiddles, clarinets, and drums and ended with dancing and singing to fiddle music.

                ‘Pinkster Day’ festivals were established in Albany, New York in the 1770s. They had country fair type atmospheres and occurred on Pentecost or the seventh Sunday after Easter and lasted a week. They are described as the “carnival of Africans... where blacks took over completely with their Congo dances, dancing as they had in Africa” (Southern 51). Dancing and music began after ‘Old King Charley’ made his appearance and everyone greeted him. King Charley and various chosen ‘partners’ moved to the square and began dancing. The music consisted of strong drum rhythms and male vocals, with repeated female vocals. “The dance consisted of couples whose movements gradually grew more rapid and furious” (Crawford 111). Many musical African traditions are seen throughout these celebrations, including integral bodily motions, a rhythimic approach to singing and dancing, and responsorial interactions between the drum, drummer, and the women.

                The South’s slaves had very little free time to engage in other activities. Additionally, white masters had fears of slave assembly. Slave assemblies were said tomake the slaves proud and give them opportunities to plan uprisings and conspiracies. But twice a year, at Christmas and Easter, “the slaves were given a respite of several days from work to celebrate their julibees” (Southern 66). The days following Christmas and Easter were spent “in merry-making and dancing to the music of the fiddle or banjo—most often the fiddle” (Southern 66). The singing definitely contained elements of satire about their masters. This was an acceptable and requested form of entertainment for slaves, as well as for their white masters and their masters’ guests. These holidays and the ways the slaves celebrated them in the South showed little or no connections to accepted Christian practices of the time. They more closely resembled African traditional ceremonies, celebrations, and festivals than Christian holidays, with their focus on dancing and singing in traditional African musical styles.

                Military music for slaves varied little between North and South, during the American Revolution. Although the “first blood shed in the colonists’ struggle for freedom was that of a runaway slave, Crispus Attucks, in the Boston Massacre of 1770” (Southern 74), there were few blacks allowed in the military. They fought in integrated units in the North and the South; and in all black units, adjacent to white regiments in Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts. Typical music assignments for black soldiers were playing the fife and drum. Barsillai Lew was a drummer and fifer from Chelmsford, Massachusetts who was “among the black soldiers who fought in the Battle of Bunker Hill in the Spring of 1775” (Southern 74). Other American Revolution black musicians who performed in the military are Jazeb Jolly (drummer), William Nickens (drummer), ‘Negro Bob’ (drummer), ‘Negro Tom’ (drummer), Richard Cozzens (fifer), and Nimrod Perkins (drummer). The duties of service musicians in the revolution were performing at ceremonies of an official nature, sounding calls, playing marches and war songs, and providing entertainment. Two familiar Revolutionary War songs are “Chester” and “Yankee Doodle.” In 1792 Congress passed laws for the formation of true military bands. Black musicians in the military during the Revolutionary War used very little traditional African practices besides keeping rhythm, but they were considered major contributors in their allowed fields of work.

Things weren’t much different at the beginning of the Civil War. In both the North and the South, blacks (slaves and freedmen) were not allowed to serve as soldiers. Slaves in the South and the Confederate Army were typically there as servants for their white masters. Most were used as laborers performing menial tasks for the troop or their master. None were allowed to fight for the army. Some were pressed into service as musicians playing the fife and drums. Occasionally, “some blacks may have been given the rank of musician or bugler” (Southern 234). “The slave Josephus Blake ... played fifes and drums for the regiment of (his) master, General John B. Gordan” (Southern 226).

The North and the Union army soon changed its policy about allowing blacks to serve in the army. In the fall of 1862 blacks were allowed to enlist and special black regiments were formed, 166 in all. One of these was the Fifty-fourth Massachusetts Regiment. “One of the first acts of the white commanding officers of Negro regiments was to procure instruments and music instructors for the formation of bands” (Southern 227). The Massachusetts Regiment got $500 to purchase uniforms and instruments. A musician from another regiment was also hired to instruct the band.   Their community duties included performing in parades, drills, and for special occasions. On their off duty time, black soldiers formed unofficial ‘glee clubs,’ performing for the community when requested. Black soldiers also sang when marching from place to place. The ‘route step,’ was an informal marching practice used during the Civil War. It allowed singing and talking by the service men. Being ‘in step’ wasn’t required, but the “black units soldiers would instinctly keep in step, singing enthusiastically and loudly as they walked along” (Southern 232). The diverse singing of separate troops, as they marched along created an odd mixture of sounds. “John Brown’s Body” was the unofficial theme song of black soldiers.

John Brown’s body lies a mouldering in the grave,
Glory hallelu!
John Brown’s body lies a mouldering in the grave,
Glory hallelu!
John Brown’s body lies a mouldering in the grave,
But his soul goes marching on.

                Like most music that came into contact with African-Americans, this marching song contains the African musical traditions of call and response patterns and of reliance on rhythm. It demonstrates how slaves kept their African musical traditions alive, while adapting them to their circumstance of slavery. The resilience of the African musical tradition in the United States of America can be clearly seen with the information contained in this paper. So, why study African American music? To obtain a deeper understanding of a group of people who came to this country in chains, and not only survived, but made huge impacts on all the people’s lives with whom they came into contact. The musical discussion of this paper verifies the impact of African musical traditions on the white European ones in existence at the time of contact. A hypothesis could be stated that these impacts occurred in any area of contact between these two groups of people. If that is true, then the resilience of the music can be correlated with a resilience of the people and their culture. That is why African-American music should be studied. As the first historian of black American music wrote in his discussion of spirituals in 1878:

The history of the colored race in this country proved that no system of cruelty, however great or long inflicted, can destroy that sympathy with musical sounds that is born with the soul (Crawford 423).

Implementation

Albuquerque Public Schools curriculum competencies, standards, and benchmarks as presented in the District Core Curriculum and Scope and Sequence Grades 6-8 being met in this unit are History and Culture #1- a, d, f, g, and i, Geography #1- a, Economics #1-a, b, c, and f, Civic Understanding #1-b, f, and g, Listening #1-a, b, c, and d, #2- a, Speaking #1-a, b, c, and d, #2-c, g, h, and i, Reading #1-a, b, c, and d, Writing #1-a, b, c, d, and e, #2-a and b.

Lesson: Introduction to African Musical Traditions

Journal Topic: What are the roles of traditions in your life? In the music you listen to?
Vocabulary: call and response pattern, rhythm, timbre, vocables, and polyphonyMusic: any call-response pattern song such as “Hammer Ring” or “Go Down, Old Hannah”
Activity: Listen to various music from around the world and have students color the colors as they ‘see’ them.

Lesson: Slave Language (dialect)

Journal Topic: Describe the dialect spoken with friends? family? Purpose.         Vocabulary: dialect, context, phonemes
Music: any slave songs containing examples of dialect, slave accounts
Activity: Listen to slave tapes, read passages from text previous to, during, and after hearing audio version. Discuss comprehension of tapes/passages.

Lesson: Triangle Trade

Journal Topic: What if...you were captured, you were Captain, you were a merchant, you were a planter?
Vocabulary: shackles, thumb presses, slavery, molasses, rum, middle passageMusic: slave accounts
Activity: Watch videos showing middle passage, ships, etc. (Roots & Amistad are good examples). Read middle passage young adult novels from either perspective of slaves or of captures (“Slave Dancer”). Listen to slave accounts. Write summaries and opinions of above materials.

Lesson: North American Slavery

Journal Topic: Discuss the nature of power and control.
Vocabulary: economics, plantations, tobacco, rice, indigo, cash crops, overseer, slave codes, melting pot
Music: Listen to music describing America as a melting pot (“The Great American Melting Pot” by Schoolhouse Rock is a good example).
Activity: Discuss idea of melting pot. Compare with concepts of power and control. Apply to personal examples.

Lesson: Slave Music--Work songs

Journal Topic: Describe the role of work.
Vocabulary: work, chanteys, field hollers, calls, vendors
Music: “Mother Necessity” by Schoolhouse Rock
Activity: Listen to work songs and identify African musical attributes. Identify jobs or wares that were the topics. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of work songs. Create a work song about the jobs students perform.

Lesson: Slave Music--Holidays

Journal Topic: What role to cultural holidays play in the community? Vocabulary: ‘Lection Day, Pinkster Holiday, Jubilee
Music: Any fiddle and drum dance music
Activity: Take notes, listen to music, discuss the number and types of holidays practiced currently.

Lesson: Slave Music--Religious

Journal Topic: Discuss the nature of internal and external conflicts.    Vocabulary: psalmody, lining out, spirituals, shouts, Christianity     Music: Any ring shout or shout
Activity: Venn diagram attributes of Christianity and slavery.

Lesson: Underground Railroad

Journal Topics: Be quiet and describe your breath, discuss the strength of family connections, describe freedom.
Vocabulary: emancipation, abolition, Fugitive Slave Act, Dred Scott, conductors, passengers, station, codes
Music: “Go Down Moses,” “The Drinking Gourd,” “Swing Low Sweet Chariot”
Activity: Create map of Underground Railroad, read excerpts from slave accounts, listen to music and identify escape code, travel the Underground on any computer simulation.

Lesson: Manifest Destiny

Journal Topic: Migration--forced versus voluntary
Vocabulary: expansion, Missouri Compromise, Connastoga wagon, Oregon, Santa Fe, and California Trails, Louisiana Purchase, Lewis and Clark, frontier    Music: any folk tales or cowboy songs
Activity: Create a game or simulate one on the computer of a westward expedition.

Lesson: Civil War

Journal: What would you be willing to die for?
Vocabulary: Confederacy, Union, Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson Davis, Johnny Rebs, Yankees, secession, economics, total war, General Sherman
Music: any march music, fifes and drums, “Dixie,” “John Brown’s Body”Activity: Economically compare the North and the South, create military marching songs or songs of war, create a map of Civil War battles, view and discuss Civil War movies (Glory and Gone with the Wind).

Lesson: Reconstruction

Journal Topic: What is change? What causes change? Describe minor and major changes in your life. Do you like change?
Vocabulary: Freedmen, Jim Crow Laws, segregation, poll taxes, carpet baggers, scalawags, literacy exams, Freedmen’s Bureau, Ku Klux Klan, White LeagueMusic: slave accounts of life immediately following freedom, early Blues musicActivity: Create a post-Civil war journal of any freed person. Include age, family, job(s), location (maps), etc.
Review: Jeopardy like game, with students on teams.

Assessment:

            Part One: Fill in the blank, matching, and short answer test.

Part Two: ‘My story’ monument, containing a personal time line and artifacts representing turning points, memorable events, and musical inspirations of the student’s life.

Documentation

Teacher Resources

Books/Articles

Berlin, Ira, Marc Favreau and Steven F. Miller. Remembering Slavery. New York, New York: The New Press, 1998

Brooks, Tilford. America’s Black Musical Heritage. Englewood Cliff, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1984.

Courlander, Harold. Negro Folk Music, U.S.A.. New York, New York: Columbia University Press, 1963.

Crawford, Richard. America’s Musical Life. New York, New York: W.W. Norton &Company, Inc., 2001.

Dixon, Christa K.. Negro Spirituals from Bible to Folk song. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Fortress Press, 1976.

Epstein, Dena J.. Sinful Tunes and Spirituals: Black Folk Music to the Civil War. Chicago, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1977.

Fisher, Miles Mark. Negro Slave Songs in The United States. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1953.

Hurd, Michael. The Oxford Junior Companion to Music. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1979.

Jones, LeRoi. Blues People: Negro Music in White America. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, Publishers, 1963.

Katz, William Loren. The Social Implications of Early Negro Music in the United States. New York, New York: Arno Press and The New York Times, 1969.

Krehbiel, Henry Edward. Afro-American Folk songs: A Study in Racial and National Music. New York, New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1971.

Southern, Eileen. The Music of Black Americans. New York, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1971.

Stewart, Earl L.. African American Music. New York, New York: Schirmer Books, 1998.

Walton, Ortiz. Music: Black, White & Blue. New York, New York: William Morrow &Co., Inc., 1972.

Wilson, Clive. The Kingfisher Young People’s Book of Music. New York, New York: Kingfisher, 1996.

Music

Afro-American Blues and Game Songs. Ed. by Alan Lomax. The Library of Congress, 1941.

The Afro-American Slave Song: Its African Roots and American Development. Research Productions, Inc., 1978.

America’s Music. Prod. by Richard Crawford. Sony Music, 2001.

The Beatles:Rubber Soul. Prod. by George Martin. EMI Records Ltd., 1965.

Best of Al Jarreau. Prod. by Matt Pierson. Warner Bros. Records Inc., 1996.

The Best Of The Big Bands. Madacy Entertainment Group, Inc., 2002.

Blues After Hours. Madacy Entertainment Group, Inc., 2000.

Bob Marley and the Wailers. Platinum Disc Corporation, 1998.

David Sanborn Hearsay. Prod. by Marcus Miller. Elektra Entertainment, 1994.

Elvis An Afternoon in the Garden. Prod. by Ernst Mikael Jorgensen and Roger Semon. BMG Entertainment, 1997.

Force Of Nature. Prod. by Criss Johnson, Koko Taylor and Bruce Iglauer. Alligator Records, 1993.

Grace Jones/ Slave To The Rhythm. Prod. by Trevor Horn. Manhattan Island Records, 1985.

Guru’s Jazzmatazz. Prod. by Guru Productions, Inc. Chrysalis Records, Inc., 1993.

Harry Belefonte presents The Long Road to Freedom: An Anthology of Black Music. Prod, by Harry Belafonte, David Belafonte, Albert C. Pryor and Leonard de Paur, 2001.

Jimi Hendrix: blues. Prod. by Alan Douglas &Bruce Gary. Experience Hendrix, L.L.C., 1994.

Kaleidoscope: Music by African-American Women. Leonarda Productions, Inc., 1995.

Legend: The Best of Bob Marley and the Wailers. Prod. by Margaret Goldfarb. The Island Def Jam Music Group, 2002.

Negro Work Songs and Calls. Prod. by Bob Carlin. Rounder Records Corp., 1999.

O Brother, Where Art Thou?. Prod. by T. Bone Burnett. UMG Recordings, Inc., 2000.

Queen: Greatest Hits. Prod. by Queen Productions. Hollywood Records, 1992.

Remembering slavery. Prod. by Smithsonian Productions. The New Press, 1998.

Riding with the King: B.B. King and Eric Clapton. Prod. by Eric Clapton and Simon Climie. Reprise Records, 2000.

Schoolhouse Rock: America Rock. Prod. by Scholastic Rock, Inc. American Broadcasting Companies, 1997.

Schoolhouse Rock: Grammar Rock. Prod. by Scholastic Rock, Inc. American Broadcasting Companies, Inc., 1997.

Shades of Brown. Prod. by Happy Sanchez. Six Degrees Records, 2001.

Sousa Favorites: The Paul Washington Marching Band. Premiere Music Company, 1998.

Umbral: Susurro Whisper. Umbral, 1997.

Student Resources

Ayazi-Hashjin, Sherry. Rap and Hip Hop: The Voice of a Generation. New York, New York: Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 1999.

Bottner, Barbara. Hurricane Music. New York, New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1995.

Brunning, Bob. Rock N’ Roll. London, England: David West Children’s Books, 1998.

Brunning, Bob. Heavy Metal. London, England: David West Children’s Books, 1998.

Brunning, Bob. Reggae. London, England: David West Children’s Books, 1998.

Bryan, Ashley. All Night, All Day: A Child’s First Book of African-American Spirituals. New York, New York: Maxwell Macmillan International Publishing Group, 1991.

Hudson, Wade &Cheryl. How Sweet the Sound: African American Songs for Children. New York, New York: Scholastic Inc., 1995.

Igus, Toyomi and Wood, Michele. i see the rhythm. San Francisco, California: Children’s Book Press, 1998.

Komaiko, Leah. I Like The Music. New York, New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1987.

Medearis, Angela Shelf and Michael R.. African-American Arts: Music. New York, New York: Twenty-First Century Books, 1997.

Monceaux, Morgan. Jazz: My Music, My People. New York, New York: Alfred A. Knopf Publishing, 1994.

Peles, Les Chats. Long Live Music. Mankato, Minnesota: Creative Editions,     1995.

Piccoli, Sean. The Greatful Dead. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Chelsea House Publishing, 1997.

Rediger, Pat. Great African Americans in Music. New York, New York: Weigl Educational Publishers, 1996.

Sabbeth, Alex. Rubber-Band, Banjos and a Java Jive Bass: Projects and Activities on the Science of Music and Sound. New York, New York: John Wiley &Sons, Inc., 1997.

Seeger, Ruth Crawford. American Folk Songs for Children. Garden City, New York: Doubleday &Company, Inc., 1948.

Silverman, Jerry. Just Listen to This Song I’m Singing: African American History Through Song. Brookfield, Connecticut: The Millbrook Press, 1996.

Silverman, Jerry. Songs and Stories from the American Revolution. Brookfield, Connecticut: The Millbrook Press, 1994.

Woog, Adam. The Importance of The Beatles. San Diego, California: Lucent Books, 1998.

Woog, Adam. Rock and Roll Legends. San Diego, California: Lucent Books, 2001.