Bernadette M. Ortega's CU

Human and Physical Geographic Features of the Western Hemisphere
Focus: People and Places in the Caribbean

Bernadette M. Ortega

The psychology of islanders—island psychology—this is the core of Caribbean Literature. An island, clearly, is a small self-contained unit, which knows its own boundaries, its own nature, its own idiosyncrasies. One can feel very quickly at home on an island, for its physical and psychological characteristics are there available to the interested observer, but on the other hand one may in time feel cramped, hemmed in, even claustrophobic; the very familiarity of everything becomes a burden and a limitation…

—Barbara Howes, From the Green Antilles (xi)

Academic Setting

This curriculum unit will be used with my seventh grade Social Studies and Language Arts students at Harrison Middle School in the South Valley of Albuquerque, New Mexico. I will have these students for two classes (blocks of 108 minutes each) on alternating days of the week and then for 45 minutes on Fridays. A typical class may have between 25 to 30 students.    I have the benefit of being able to plan lessons across the two content areas, since I will be having the same students for both classes; however, this unit could be modified for use in either social studies or language arts.

            The location of Harrison Middle School in the South Valley is unique. Although the South Valley, like Albuquerque, is located within Bernalillo County, it is quite separate from the city by traditional and natural boundaries. The South Valley is part of the unincorporated rural area of Albuquerque, and for generations it has traditionally been an agrarian community. The area is reputed to have high levels of poverty and crime and is thus avoided by many people that live in the city. Old adobe homes stand in contrast to the new housing developments and mobile home parks that are slowly claiming the open fields. Situated between homes and open fields, where seeing chickens and horses is a common sight, Harrison rests against a backdrop of the bosque, which traces the perimeter of the Rio Grande. The outline of the South Valley (and the North Valley) is further delineated by Interstate 25 on the south and on the east, and by Interstate 40 on the north; the West Mesa and the volcanic cliffs lie to the west.

            The student population at Harrison is predominantly Hispanic, with nearly ninety percent of the student body qualifying for free or reduced lunch. The Hispanic population at Harrison includes monolingual English speaking students, bilingual Spanish and English speaking students, and a number of monolingual Spanish speaking students. The remaining student population is non-Hispanic and includes Native American, African American, and Anglo students. The Native American population at Harrison consists of monolingual English speakers and some students who are bilingual in Navajo and English.

            Academically, a significant number of students at Harrison are reading at levels that are four-to-seven years below their actual grade level and are considered “at risk.” In addition, Harrison Middle School is listed in the district as a “school in need of improvement.” I will be teaching my seventh grade social studies and language arts classes in English, and I will be using some sheltering strategies, since English may be the second language for some of my students. To assist my second-language learners in the classroom, my plan will include the following five components of a sheltered ESL (English as a Second Language) lesson:

·        A specific language objective or teaching point incorporated into the content/skill of the lesson

·        Activation of prior knowledge

·        Use of realia, or hands-on material and the opportunity to process the content and the language that is inherent to the material

·        A text modification (as necessary)

·        Cooperative grouping and peer interaction

Context and Background

Rationale

What is World Literature?

The notion of “world literature” may seem to be self-evident, since, as the expression implies, this would simply include literature taken from around the world. Yet, far from simple is the answer to such a question: “what is world literature?” Considering the idea of world literature becomes notably problematic when we stop to reflect on some of the many controversial issues surrounding works from around the globe. Firstly, we must ask, as does Sarah Lawall in her “Introduction” to Reading World Literature: Theory, History, Practice,   “What is the ‘world’ of world literature; how, for whom, and to whom is this world represented, and what does the process of representation involve for those implicated in it” (1). Secondly, we must also ask by what measure should we choose to define (acceptable) world literature, who should define it, and whose voice should be considered as representative of a given part of the world? If we are to inform our view of “What is world literature?” we must begin to recognize works that have not traditionally been included in the Western canon of “great books,” but where do we start? Is there a universal list of great world literature?

Unfortunately, there are no simple answers to this question. As Lawall states in her introduction, “world literature defined as a list of books does not provide the best measure of the world literature concept or of its potential” (2). We must, as Lawall adds, view “reading world literature (as) a process of reading for the world: of recognizing the worlds involved in the text, or in the reading of texts” (3). It’s quite overwhelming, however, as Thomas M. Greene states in his essay, “Misunderstanding Poetry: Teaching Outside the Western Canon,” to find “oneself confronted with the universal human activity of verbal creation on our planet” (1). To attempt to teach world literature on such a scale is a daunting task that “is literally impossible, and that all one can hope is to reduce that impossibility to the merely very difficult” (Greene 1).

We can no longer deny that “the traditional literary canon is undergoing radical scrutiny, and we’re becoming much more aware of all the voices that canon has tended to filter out” (Greene 1). As we become conscious of these multitudes of voices, we must acknowledge the dynamic complexities of these literary texts, and recognize that their significance is influenced as much by the world from which they originate, as by the world from which they are viewed. World literature represents (as it should) diversity. World authors, by their very nature, are diverse and often very much unlike ourselves: they are coming from a wide variety of backgrounds, speaking different languages, and are certainly writing for many different purposes. Of course, herein lies our fascination for reading world literature--to gain a window into the experience of someone unlike ourselves; but simultaneously we are posed with one of the most obvious obstacles that we face in wanting to read world literature—language differences.

An author’s background and purpose for writing need to be considered when studying literature of any kind; however, it is language that may pose the greatest challenge for readers interested in studying world literature. Language differences affect audience accessibility and understanding. Even individuals who know multiple languages may find it difficult to access works in languages that are unfamiliar to them in the literary sense. Works in translation are available, but variations in translation may make the reading of world literature difficult.

Add to these difficulties the sheer number of written works from throughout the world, and the prospect of becoming a world literature scholar is quite staggering. Attempting to wade though this world of writings is overwhelming, to say the least. As Professor Gary Harrison points out in his essay, “What is World Literature?” attempting to consider the whole of world literature can lead “to a kind of readerly vertigo, given the dizzying numbers of works produced over time throughout the world” (1). This is especially true when one stops to consider not only the vast number of works written in one’s own language, but also the incredible quantity of works written in other languages, of which only a select few are available in translation. Faced with such an overwhelming task, one might ask, why study world literature?

            There are many reasons to inspire us to attempt the daunting task of reading world literature, not the least of which is to better understand ourselves as seen through the eyes of others. As Goethe wrote in 1827:

The nations that are humanized as individuals and neighbors—that are given the capacity to read—thereupon recognize each others’ literature, even in translation, they become further aware of different national characters (and of their own) as so many separate personalities. Here is transactional analysis on a grand scale, with individualized national cultures comprehending one another and consequently themselves better through the reciprocal experience of being mirrored (“read”) by foreign eyes (qtd. in Lawall 14).

The differences as well as the similarities that we share are distinct aspects of our being; these are the things that make us uniquely human. Although, differences, such as who we are, where we live, the language we speak, and the customs and the traditions we honor, may separate us from one another, there are many similarities we share as human beings. An integral part of being human is our need to socialize and to communicate with others; as humans, we have the capacity to laugh, to cry, to experience joy and pain, and to identify with others with whom we can share these feelings. Outwardly our differences separate us, but inwardly we relish the idea of making a connection with others in some manner.

One way to connect with other people is to listen to them. When we read, we are “listening” to the words of another human being regardless of differences. Reading is like getting a glimpse into the heart and mind of another human being; it’s very personal, but also inclusive, because words once written down can be shared. When we consider another person’s words, although foreign because of language or culture, we gain a different perspective. “Sociolinguist George Lakoff argues that different cultures and languages are different conceptual systems, ‘diverse ways of comprehending experience [whose diversity is] necessary to our survival as a species.” And, he adds, “we have a lot to learn from other ways of conceptualizing experience(s) that have evolved around the world” (qtd. in Lawall 32). Further, as human beings, we can choose to participate in the social act of reading, of being an audience, and of sharing in the vicarious experience of another individual’s voice. Whether one is reading alone or in a group, reading involves the reader in society. Ideas on paper can transcend time and place, and being able to read and understand another person’s ideas is a kind of communal exchange, an “interactive process” as Wolfgang Iser puts it (qtd. in Lawall 32). This experience heightens our sense that we are not alone in our corner of the planet. Recognizing this makes us conscious of who we are in relationship to who we are not.

Of course, often the question of language, audience, and accessibility makes this awakening of self-awareness through the reading of (world) literature difficult, but not impossible. For although language is closely linked with culture and one’s identity, the core essence of works in translation may be retained through a skilled translator, and the obvious “foreignness” of works written in other languages can still be transmitted through context and experience that may be foreign to us (Goethe). As Myron Tuman notes, “reading always involves some unfamiliarity…because texts are already separated from the initial circumstances that gave them meaning” (qtd. in Lawall 31). The same can be said of same-language texts, but it is especially true of translated texts.

According to Goethe’s point of view, however, even in translation, the essence of a foreign voice can come through. Goethe says, “if the translator were sufficiently steeped in the original, this by now almost disembodied essence of national consciousness would be visible without conflict in a perfectly attuned alien tongue” (qtd. in Lawall 15). Naturally, to better understand the context of world literature, including--but not limited to--works in translation, it is important to build on as much background knowledge about the author, the location, the subject matter, as well as the author’s target audience as possible. Other important issues a reader may want to consider about an author may include race, ethnicity, culture, religion, society, and gender (this by no means being an exhaustive list to consider). This consideration is true, of course, when a reader chooses to read same-language texts or works in translation. The question then becomes one of purpose: what is my purpose in choosing to read anything?   If our purpose is to read works by authors of another land who happen to speak—and write—in a foreign language, then we may need to consider works that have been translated into our language. If considering a work in translation, however, it may be beneficial to investigate the source of more than one translation of the same piece in order to obtain different perspectives of the original author’s intentions.

Each reader of a text comes with her/her own background and knowledge; therefore, due to each reader’s personal experience, each individual may grasp the ideas of another writer differently. As Sara Lawall reminded us in her introduction, “any reading must recognize a text’s cultural embedding in order to decipher the way it displaces and overrides competing texts with other world views” (Lawall 32). Or as Adrienne Rich puts it, we must consider the “politics of location” surrounding a text (qtd. in Lawall 32). A reader’s understanding of a text will influence how that person will relay the information to another individual through “new” words. This can prove to be controversial even for the interpretation of same-language texts. Undoubtedly, the same can be said about works in translation, as each translator may present the original text as he or she reads it, i.e., interprets it. A “good” translation may capture the essence of the original in form, meaning, and/or style, but it is still once removed from the original, and we need to recognize this. As Eugene Chen Eoyang states in his essay, “The Many ‘Worlds’ in Literature: Pound and Waley as Translators of Chinese,” we “cannot ignore the role that translation and translators play in our encounter with foreign works in our native language” (qtd. in Lawall 242). Eoyang notes in his essay that a translation may “provide the only access to an otherwise inaccessible work for the monolingual” (qtd. in Lawall 242). In which case, Eoyang adds, translations may seem to “take the place, faute de mieux, of the original: to all intents and purposes, they become the original in the target language” (qtd. in Lawall 242). It may, therefore, be appropriate to question a work in translation, even a “good” translation, to determine if it is truly representative of the original or if it has become an entirely new work that has been inspired by the original. Of course, such a work may still prove to be enlightening, but one must consider one’s purpose, then, in reading world literature, particularly works in translation.

The purpose of reading works written in one’s own language or reading works in translation may, in fact, be congruent: we may want to read both varieties for the same purpose. Is our purpose to be entertained, to be informed, to get better sense of others, or to better understand who we are in relationship to others? One’s purpose may include all or none of the reasons mentioned above, or there may be other personal, professional, or social reasons for reading. For students, stating what the primary objective is for reading a particular text, however, may increase their interest, their motivation, and their involvement in a particular text—whether it is of the same language or a work in translation.

Classroom Goals

With my middle school students, it is my goal to heighten their sense of self as they exist within the larger context of the world. My purpose in having them read particular works is that I want to expose them to texts that are foreign, but accessible. Since I have the benefit of having the same students for social studies and language arts, I must also consider how I want to integrate these two subjects. Fortunately, these two subjects readily lend themselves to being integrated, since reading and writing are intrinsic to both subjects, and I think the inclusion of world literature will enhance the study of both areas.

One area I need to focus on for my seventh grade social studies students is the Western Hemisphere. I have chosen to break this large area into more palatable pieces for the sake of this curriculum unit. I intend to have my students study the regions, countries, major cities, and physical geographic features of the Caribbean, while delving into the world literature that has emerged from this region. I feel that simultaneously studying the history and literature of the Caribbean will help my students to develop a better sense of the people and the place they are investigating. This is not to imply that there exists such a thing as “Caribbean literature,” since each nation of islands has developed their own literature, but as a region there are many similarities we can observe from a distance. One commonality that this region shares, is its history of slavery and its history of being colonized from outside. Like their colonizers, many of the ancestors of present-day citizens of these islands have immigrated—often by force--to the area from outside. Several European powers were instrumental in the colonizing of these islands, and even now in the postcolonial era, these Europeans have left their legacy in the language, the faces, and the culture of many of these people. Still the topic remains quite broad, as the Caribbean encompasses many islands, people of various ethnic, racial, cultural, religious, and social backgrounds, as well as several distinct languages. Not to mention, the diversity of world literature that such a mix of peoples has produced.

Background

The Caribbean

The Caribbean islands are located in the Atlantic Ocean, east and southeast of the Gulf of Mexico, and they include the Bahamas in the north to Curacao (southeast of Florida) to Trinidad and Tobago in the south, just off the coast of Venezuela. Two geographic zones exist within this region and they encompass different natural environments. Except for the northernmost parts of the Bahamas, the islands are located south of the Tropic of Cancer. Due to their geographic location, all of the islands are typically warm and humid, although some islands receive more rainfall than others do. The islands share much in common, but are also distinct, and “rule by four major (and several minor) European empires increased the region’s natural diversity” (Rogozinski xii). The islands border the opposite side of the Caribbean Sea, west of Mexico and Central America. Some geographers include the mainland of Central America from Mexico down as far as French Guiana in the discussion of the Caribbean, because these areas share a common history and similar patterns of development. However, for the purposes of this curriculum unit, although I will acknowledge this point of view with my students, my emphasis will remain with the Caribbean islands themselves.

            It has been nearly six centuries since Columbus landed in the West Indies and first assigned the misnomer that has endured and irrevocably linked the Old World with the New. In the centuries that followed, several European powers came to dominate the Caribbean. Self-rule, like the abolition of slavery, came to the islands at different times during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Haiti (since 1804) and the Dominican Republic have enjoyed the longest periods of independence, while many of the former British colonies did not become sovereign states until as late as the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. Although much has changed since the first European contact and colonization of the Caribbean, Anguilla, Montserrat, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, and the Turks and the Caicos still remain Crown colonies, while “enjoying a measure of internal self-government” (Rogozinski xiii). Guadalupe and Martinique each became a province or département within the French Republic in 1946. The six Dutch islands became self-governing territories associated with the Netherlands in 1954. Puerto Rico became an Associated Free State or Commonwealth of the U.S. in 1952 and the U.S. Virgin Islands gained control over local affairs in 1968 (Rogozinski xii).

The Spanish Rule

On Christmas Day, after Columbus’s first trip to the islands, his flagship, the Santa Maria, was grounded and destroyed on a sandbank near the island now known as Navidad (meaning Christmas). Columbus left behind 39 men, who formed the first European settlement in the “New World,” and he returned to Spain with his surviving two ships. To impress Queen Isabella, Columbus took gold and six Lucayo Indians to Spain. Columbus’s return to Spain generated a lot of excitement and interest in the Americas. It wasn’t long before Queen Isabella approved and sponsored a much larger expedition to the region. On his second voyage, Columbus commanded 17 ships and 1,200-armed soldiers. His ships were stocked with horses, sheep, cattle, and hogs, as well as European plants such as wheat, barley, grapes, and sugarcane, and he also had approximately 300 crewmembers and settlers on board. The Spanish Monarchy intended to invade, claim, and rule by right of conquest the sum of all the territories in the region that were not claimed by another Christian ruler. They believed that they “were obligated to bring under their rule territories occupied by pagans (or Christian heretics)” (Rogozinski 24-26).

The Spanish monarchs claimed absolute rule in the Americas, and they considered themselves free of the restraints that limited their power in Europe. Of course, the Spanish monarchy never visited their colonies to the west; they ruled and controlled their overseas holdings through delegates and administrators. Being at such a distance from the Crown, however, these officials enjoyed a great deal of autonomy and license to interpret the laws of Spain in the Americas.

During the first 25 years, a great deal of effort was made to enforce the power of the Monarchy abroad. Through the establishment of the Casa de Contratación (Board of Trade), Spain established a means to control the movement of goods and people to and from the colonies. In this area, the Casa de Contratación became a powerful bureaucracy that regulated trade and emigration. The agency also collected revenues and managed financial matters in the region on behalf of the Crown. Over time the Casa de Contratación evolved into a local court that could resolve conflicts on the islands between government officials.

            To encourage the early colonization and the development of the islands, Queen Isabella authorized the distribution of land under a royal decree known as the repartimiento. Under the Spanish repartimiento, land owned by the Spanish Crown was assigned to individual settlers who were expected to build dwellings and live and work on the land for four years. After four years, they could continue to use the land, sell it, give it away, or will it to their family (Rogozinski xii).

            The first groups of Spanish settlers sought gold and riches, however, and did not go to the Americas to work. Since they were assigned a portion of land and had free use of all its resources, many of the “Spanish squatted on Indian communities and lived off (“their” Indians’) labor” (Rogozinski 27). These squatters believed that under the official Spanish repartimiento, they had been given the right to use the land assigned to them and everything on it (including the natives). This practice of forcing Indians to work without wages became known as la encomienda. Although it was technically considered illegal (as the Indians, like the territories, had been claimed by Spain and were therefore subjects of Spain), it was a practice that was tolerated by the Spanish Crown for centuries in order to make the colonies profitable (Rogozinski 27).

The prosperity and overall economy of the colonies had become heavily dependent upon Indian labor. Gold mines and food production relied almost entirely on Indian workers, but forced labor and harsh conditions helped to kill off many of the native peoples in the colonies. By 1509 an official Spanish census counted 60,000 adult Indians; nine years later another census included as few as 11,000. As early as 1511, however, critics, especially members of the Dominican religious order, were outspoken about the ill treatment of native peoples. Colonists, however, continued to use the natives to do manual labor and their numbers dwindled.

In an effort to save the economy, colonists began bringing Indians from neighboring islands to work the mines and they began importing black slaves from the Canary Islands and West Africa to take up the slack. The colonists couldn’t supply the demand for labor fast enough to save the economy and many gold mines closed, food production dropped, and settlers abandoned their land. By the mid-1500s Spain abolished Indian slavery and outlawed the encomienda system, but by then many Indian groups on the islands had died out and the remaining societies were near extinction. Although now illegal, colonists in South America continued to use Indians as forced labor, but in the Caribbean, Indians were almost entirely replaced with free blacks and black slaves. By 1570, the population of the Spanish islands was over 68,000. Of these inhabitants, 7,500 were recorded as being white, and 25,000 were listed as free non-whites, and approximately 37,000 were listed as slaves. Black Africans, both free and slave, were most heavily imported during the sugar boom from 1530 to 1570 (Rogozinski 51). The economy improved and the Spanish Crown encouraged colonists to stay in the region.

Most Spanish colonists lived in townships and established city councils. The Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies was established as a permanent committee to oversee the enforcement of colonial laws in the townships. The system was based more on juridical rather than on political power. This system remained fairly intact until the 1760s.

After the Spanish Crown began colonizing the Caribbean and the Americas, Spain reaped the wealth of “Montezuma’s fabled treasures and other riches seized by Cortes” in Mexico (Rogozinski 38). However, little was done to organize the colonies militarily. The French were almost continuously at war with Spain until 1559; consequently, numerous raids were made by the French on Spanish merchant vessels sailing between the Americas and Seville. There was no established chain of command in the colonies, but Spain, realizing that it needed to protect its investment, organized “The Spanish Convoy System” by using Spanish warships to accompany and protect merchant ships sailing across the Atlantic. For more than two hundred years, Spain’s convoy system succeeded in protecting the vast majority of its merchant ships, but French and English pirates were a constant threat (Rogozinski 41).

The Dutch Empire

After 150 years of pillaging Spain’s empire in the Caribbean, the Dutch planted permanent colonies in the uninhabited islands during the 1620s (Rogozinski 59). During the first half of the seventeenth century, these early colonies depended on Dutch mariners, traders, and merchants to travel between Europe and the islands. The Dutch eventually established colonies and set up settlements and plantations. They also set up mines for salt and precious metals (Rogozinski 64). Along with the Dutch, the British and the French began to colonize the Caribbean Islands.

The British Empire

Like the Dutch, the British eventually claimed a portion of the Caribbean, because it proved to be a profitable investment. The British settlement of the area known as the “Lesser Antilles” came following the Thirty Years’ War of 1618. In 1620 the first English settlements were established and the venture proved to be hugely profitable for Britain largely due to the use of imported slave labor for the sugar and tobacco industry. Unfortunately, the tobacco industry quickly fell due to the fact that tobacco is a weed that will grow anywhere and the over-production of tobacco drove the price down severely (Rogozinski 68). Sugar then became the top export for the British from the islands, and which led to Barbados becoming the richest colony in the 1640s (Rogozinski 68). This result of the sugar boom allowed Barbados to develop the first British plantation society in the Caribbean, in which white male landowners of 10 acres of more could vote and hold political positions on the island. Some indentured servants were used in the colonies, but black African imported slaves performed the vast majority of the labor. Working the plantations was very labor intensive; therefore, the number of slaves needed increased proportionately. Eventually the black slaves comprised the overwhelming majority of the population in the colonies.

            “Economically, socially, and politically, slavery dominated the islands to an extent never matched in human history. By the 1750s, almost nine out of 10 men and women were slaves on all the islands where sugar was grown” (Rogozinski 125). Slaves were used for every conceivable sort of task on the islands from heavy manual labor working on the sugar plantations to working as domestics to living in the towns and working as skilled craftsmen. Unfortunately, enslaved black Africans on the islands reproduced little or no offspring, and the death rate of imported black African slaves was highest during their first few years on the islands. Some theories about this are that the slaves were so overworked and abused that the stress of daily life made it difficult for them to survive, much less conceive. Diet may have also been a factor, as most of the people on the islands had a poor diet because they were dependant on imported food, which was contingent to the regularity of incoming merchant ships, which were often pirated during their transatlantic voyage. Also enslaved men and women did not have much time or opportunity to maintain or sustain any kind of male-female relationships, as they were worked, traded or sold without such considerations. Few women, in comparison to men, were imported as slaves due to the high demand of physical labor needed on the plantations. Often enslaved women who did conceive bore stillborn children (Rogozinski 142).

            Still, the number of black slaves heavily outnumbered their white owners, and fears about slaves rioting or rebelling were realities. Hundreds of uprisings occurred throughout the slave era, but slavery persisted yet for some time. Some slaves simply ran away, but sometimes large groups of slaves—as many as “hundreds of slaves”—met and plotted to rise up against the plantation owners and other whites on the islands. One group known as “Maroons” created separate African communities, especially in Jamaica and Saint-Dominique. These communities, made up largely of runaways, sustained themselves apart for many years. Although they sought to be as independent of whites as possible, they still needed to establish some “trade with the plantations, especially for guns” (Rogozinski 160) In Jamaica, the maroons managed to have a semi-independent status until Jamaica became independent in 1962, but their privilege came at a price. The Jamaican government employed them in the capture and suppression of other enslaved black Africans (Rogozinski 158).

The French in the Lesser Antilles

The French began colonizing in the Lesser Antilles at the same time as the British. In fact, both the French and the British claimed many of the same islands. The French created several companies, which monopolized the region, and they set up a system of representatives (proprietors) to govern the area. However, the companies were not able to provide either slaves or provisions, so most companies ignored the French representatives and traded with the Dutch (Rogozinski 77). By 1661, independent rule by proprietors ended, at the start of the reign of King Louis XIV, who put his financial manager, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, in control of the French islands’ economy. Colbert was successful only in destroying the profits from the islands. Because of his view that the Dutch should no longer be allowed to visit the island ports, in particular the main port in Martinique, Colbert thus prevented the continuation of trade and transportation by Dutch merchants of goods from the islands to Amsterdam for sale. Unlike the British, who formed societies on the plantation islands, the French preferred to govern their colonies directly from France. Therefore, although the French colonists paid lower taxes than their British counterparts, they had no representation (Rogozinski 81). The weak economy was revived when the king chartered the Compagnie des Indes occidentales (West Indies Company), which was based in practice on the Dutch West India Company. The company lost a lot of money, however, during the Second Dutch War, and eventually the Crown liquidated the company and reclaimed the islands as part of the royal domain in 1674 (Rogozinski 81).

The Abolition of Slavery in the Caribbean

“Slave revolts…were common in the Windward Islands after the British occupied them in 1763.” Thousands of new slaves were imported from Africa to work on the new plantations, and the islands witnessed “major rebellions as these newly arrived Africans resisted their captors.” “Slave rebellions reached their peak in 1795 because the revolutionary government in France encouraged them during its war with Great Britain” (Rogozinski 160). With the increase of sugar plantations on the Spanish colony of Cuba, the number of “slave revolts also became commonplace”(Rogozinski 163). Meanwhile, the idea of slavery was drawing lots of protests in Europe.

Antislavery organizations were being formed, such as the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade. In seeking support for their cause, antislavery leaders were surprised to receive thousands of responses, and Parliament also received numerous petitions to abolish slavery (Rogozinski 181). “Eighteenth-century Europe witnessed a religious revival that stressed the need for a personal relationship with God…the converted believed that God rewards the good and punishes sin and evil…thus they became convinced that abolishing slavery would ensure God’s blessings,” but continued slavery “would call down God’s wrath” (Rogozinski 183). Many debates took place, but more and more Europeans were pressing for the abolition of slavery. On January 1, 1796, the Commons ended the British slave trade, but not the practice of using slave labor. The abolition of slavery was more popular in Europe than on the plantations, and not all of Europe was swayed by the religious convictions that transpired in Great Britain. Eventually the Dutch also passed anti-slave-trading in laws in 1806, but an illegal slave trade persisted and was enabled by and through the French and the Spanish until 1820. As a result, slave prices soared and illegal activity surrounding slavery ran rampant; bribery and illegal trading became commonplace, especially in islands like Cuba that depended heavily on slave labor.

Roughly 25 years passed between the abolition of slavery and the emancipation of slaves. To help in the facilitation of this movement, Britain established the Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery in 1823 (Rogozinski 184). Increased pressure from anti-slavery organizations eventually forced Jamaica to adopt the Slave Act in 1831, which provided for some rights for blacks, such as legalized marriages between slaves, the unlawful breakup of families, the restriction of physical punishment, and the prohibition of work or markets on Sundays. By the 1820s, Jamaica further lifted the restrictions on “free coloreds, who could now vote and be elected to office” (Rogozinski 185). Economic devastation followed the emancipation of slaves, since the society had been set up to support a slave-based economy. Prices of goods increased dramatically while incomes dropped sharply. Production fell, “many plantations operated at a loss, and government revenues plummeted” (Rogozinski 187). The colonies were forced to completely reorganize their new “free” society (Rogozinski 187).

Implementation

This curriculum unit will be used to integrate seventh grade social studies and language arts.    As part of our study of the Western Hemisphere, this nine-week unit will focus on the human and the physical geography of the Caribbean. To supplement their understanding, students will read a variety of (world) literatures from the region, while they research the history of the region and its people. Through a variety of texts and hands-on activities, students will learn about the people of the Caribbean, as they study the different countries, major cities, and geographic features of the area. Using their research, students will reflect on the history of the islands, including the migration of Europeans, Africans, and others to the Caribbean, and investigate how the social and political environment evolved in the Caribbean. Students will then examine how the development of the Caribbean was instrumental in the European expansion of the Americas. Through their study of the history, the geography, and the literature of the Caribbean, students can develop a personal sense of the people and the places they are investigating. In studying a place and it people, students have the opportunity to compare and contrast their own world with that of the other, and, perhaps, become more self-aware of themselves within the context of the world beyond their personal experience.

This unit addresses the curriculum alignment for seventh grade social studies, which includes the following:

Students must be able to

·         identify the location of major geographic features in the Western Hemisphere

·         identify the regions, countries, major cities, and physical geographic features using maps, databases, thematic graphs, atlases, and other geographic tools

·         construct and use maps from memory about people, places, and environments in a spatial context, and

·         identify attitudes, values, and beliefs that influence personal and cultural identities

To accompany the social studies curriculum, I will have students choose a particular island or region in the Caribbean to research and become very familiar with. To develop their interest and knowledge of a particular place, students will do background research for information about the location via the Internet and the library. Students will choose from a variety of supplemental texts by Caribbean authors to assist them in their understanding of the particular area they have chosen. I have located several narratives that students may be interested in. I plan to have students read, compare and contrast the following two narratives: The History of Mary Prince, A West Indian Slave by Mary Prince, and The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, The African, Written by Himself.   Before we begin this unit, I will have students the read and discuss the essay “What is World Literature?” by Gary Harrison. Students will also have the opportunity to read folktales and short stories by regional authors that may help them to become more familiar with the people, the place, and the history of the Caribbean (refer to texts included in the bibliography). As a class, we will read from a collection of writings that include works available in English, as the original working language, and some works in translation by and about people of the Caribbean (refer to Global Voices: Contemporary Literature from the Non-Western World). I will also implement other forms of language development, and having students create a fictional colonial-period diary or journal.

Teachers may wish to adapt this Caribbean unit in a variety of ways. For example, your students could organize a Caribbean celebration, listen to regional music, and prepare local foods. Other options to consider in adapting this unit for your classroom may include writing letters to the various departments of tourism and find pen pals in the Caribbean. You may also wish to extend this lesson by having students read and compare The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, Written by Himself with the The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, The African, Written by Himself. Or you may have students read and compare The History of Mary Prince (a recorded narrative) by Mary Prince with one of the selections from the Dear America Series. Two good choices from historical fiction are I Thought My Soul Would Rise and Fly by Joyce Hansen or Color Me Dark: The Diary of Nellie Lee Love, The Great Migration North by Patricia McKissack. Students could also read and consider the rich folk-tale tradition of the Caribbean and they could collect or write their own folk-tales, or compare and contrast other traditions, such as folk medicine and modern medicine. In your exploration of the Caribbean, you can easily provide substance for any of the following: math, science, geography, history, anthropology, sociology, economics, politics, literature, and the arts.

State Standards Addressed

Social Studies Standards

Content Standard – 1 HISTORY: Students are able to identify important people and events in order to analyze significant patterns, relationships, themes, ideas, beliefs, and turning points in New Mexico, United States, and world history in order to understand the complexity of the human experience.

·        Compare and contrast the influence of Spain on the Western Hemisphere from colonization to the present.

·        Analyze and evaluate information by developing and applying criteria for selecting appropriate information and use it to answer critical questions.

·        Demonstrate the ability to examine history from the perspectives of the participants.

Content Standard – 2 GEOGRAPHY: Students understand how physical, natural, and cultural processes influence where people live, the ways in which people live, and how societies interact with one another and their environments.

·        Describe ways that mental maps reflect attitudes about places.

·        Describe factors affecting location of human activities, including land use patterns in urban, suburban, and rural areas.

·        Explain how differing perceptions of places, people, and resources have affected events and conditions in the past.

·        Interpret and analyze geographic information obtained from a variety of sources (e.g., maps, directly witnessed and surveillance photographic and digital data, symbolic representations [e.g., graphs, charts, diagrams, tables], personal documents, and interviews).

Language Arts Standards

Content Standard – 1 READING AND LISTENING FOR COMPREHENSION: Students will apply strategies and skills to comprehend information that is read, heard, and viewed.

·        Use a variety of resources to express individual perspectives in response to personal, social, cultural, and historical issues.

·        Interpret and synthesize information by responding to information that is read, heard, or viewed.

·        Develop informational products and/or presentations that cite multiple print and non-print sources by identifying and using appropriate primary and secondary sources

Content Standard – 2 WRITING AND SPEAKING FOR EXPRESSION: Students will communicate effectively through speaking and writing.

·        Express individual perspectives in written response to personal, social, cultural, and historical issues.

·         Differentiate shades of meaning and multiple meanings of words.

·         Produce research reports and technical writings that communicate information effectively to a specific audience.

·         Compose a variety of writings that develop sentence fluency to communicate ideas and information clearly using a variety of multimedia technologies.

Lesson Timeline

Our focus for seventh grade social studies is on the Western Hemisphere. During the first nine-week period, we will be focusing on Europe. We will follow this by “migrating” to the Caribbean in the second nine weeks. The unit I’ve outlined in this paper will then be used during the second nine-week period of the school year, and will be followed by a study of the Americas, and New Mexico. Our focus throughout seventh grade social studies will, of course, make reference to New Mexico and its relationship to the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, the United States, and the Southwest.

Week 1

·         Students will listen to and discuss Caribbean music in class.

·         Students will learn about the geographic location of the Caribbean.

·         Columbus Day: Students will learn about the first European contact and read about its impact.

·         Introduce the Caribbean through short selections from Global Voices: Contemporary Literature from the Non-Western World by Arthur W. Biddle, et al.

·         Focus on the elements of a biography.

·         Students will begin reading The History of Mary Prince, A West Indian Slave by Mary Prince.

·         Students will begin keeping a reading log to record their reflections on the in-class and at-home readings.

·         Students will use pumpkins (this being October) to create a representation of the globe. Students will learn about the Fibonacci Number: As pumpkins naturally have 18 “seams,” we will use them to create a global representation of the world using markers and maps.

Week 2

·         Students will learn about the history of the Caribbean.

·         Teacher will share other sources of Caribbean literature with students in the form of folktales, etc.

·         Students will continue reading Mary Prince and continue keeping a reading log to record their reflections on the in-class and at-home readings.

·         Inform students about the final presentation project/presentation due week 9.

Week 3

·         Students will plan a menu and prepare a Caribbean feast.

·         Students will continue reading Mary Prince and continue keeping a reading log to record their reflections on the in-class and at-home readings about Mary Prince.

·         Students will begin writing their reflections on the people and the geographic particulars associated with the Caribbean Islands.

·         Remind students about the final presentation project/presentation due week 9.

Weeks 4 and 5

·         Students will finish reading Mary Prince. Remind students: reading logs will be instrumental in helping them to recall key elements of their reading.

·         Library/Research time: students will begin research in the library and via the Internet on their chosen area of the Caribbean. They will write a 1000-word research paper that will be submitted as part of their final project in week 9.

·         Students will use the following research paper rubric, located on the Internet at: http://www.cesdp.nmhu.edu/standards/primer/assess/setting6.htm

·         Remind students about the final presentation project/presentation due week 9.

Week 6

·         Students will begin reading The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, The African, Written by Himself.

·         Students will begin keeping a reading log to record their reflections on the in-class and at-home readings about Olaudah Equiano.

·         Students will begin a geographic study of their chosen area within the Caribbean, and demonstrate their knowledge and understanding, by creating a three-dimensional representation of the area (they have weeks 6 and 7 to complete this project).

·         Remind students about the final presentation project/presentation due week 9.

Week 7

·         Students will continue reading Olaudah Equiano and continue keeping a reading log to record their reflections on the in-class and at-home readings about Olaudah Equiano.

·         Students will create a timeline that will include the period of European first contact through the colonial/slave period to the present (they have weeks 7 and 8 to complete this project). (Use rubistar.4teachers.org to create a timeline rubric).

·         Three-dimensional geographic study is due at the end of the week.

·         Remind students about the final presentation project/presentation due week 9.

Week 8

·         Students will finish reading Olaudah Equiano.

·         Students will choose one of the books read during this nine-week period, and using their reading logs, they will begin writing their book report (minimum of five (5) well developed paragraphs with supporting details; maximum two-pages typed).

·         Students will create a visual representation of their understanding about the events and/or time period covered in one of the book(s) read during this nine-week period. (This visual may be a one, two or three-dimensional project, e.g., a poster, a drawing, a clay or paper sculpture, or another creative visual of their choosing that they can get permission to do beforehand, or it may be 10-slide PowerPoint presentation).

·         Timeline due at the end of the week.

·         Remind students about the final presentation project/presentation due week 9.

Week 9

·         Students will share their visual representation or their three-dimensional geographic study, plus they will choose to present one of the following to the class: book report, timeline, or research paper on their chosen topic related to the study of the human and physical geography of the region.

Assessment

Language Arts Assessment

·         Students will submit a personal diary at the end of the nine-week period, which will contain reflections on the people and the geographic particulars associated with the Caribbean Islands.

·         Students will keep and submit a reading log to reflect on the reading in class and at home (this will be checked weekly and submitted at the end of their reading of their book).

·         Students will write and present a two-page book report to the class, and include a visual representation of their understanding (this visual may take the form of a poster, drawing, clay or paper sculpture, or another creative visual of their choosing that they can get permission to do beforehand).

Social Studies Assessment

·         Students will create a timeline that will include the period of European first contact through the colonial/slave period to the present.

·         Students will complete a geographic study of their chosen area within the Caribbean, and demonstrate their knowledge and understanding, by creating a three-dimensional representation of the area.

·         Students will demonstrate knowledge and understanding by completing the projects and by submitting a research paper on their chosen topic related to the study of the human and physical geography of the region

Documentation

Works Cited

Biddle, Arthur W., et al. Global Voices: Contemporary Literature from the Non-Western              World. Upper Saddle River: Prentice, 1995.

Eoyang, Eugene Chen. “The Many ‘Worlds’ in World Literature: Pound and Waley as Translator
            of Chinese. essay from Sarah Lawall, ed. Reading World Literature: Theory, History,               Practice. Austin: U of Texas P, 1994.

Greene, Thomas M. “Misunderstanding Poetry: Teaching outside the Western Canon” essay from              Sarah Lawall, ed. Reading World Literature: Theory, History, Practice. Austin: U
           of Texas P, 1994.

Harrison, Gary “What is World Literature?” Albuquerque: UNM Course Packet, 2002.

Howes, Barbara, ed. From the Green Antilles: Writings of the Caribbean. New York:
          Macmillan, 1966.

Lawall, Sarah, ed., et al. The Norton Anthology of World Literature. 2nd ed. New York: W.W.              Norton, 2002.

---.      Reading World Literature: Theory, History, Practice. Austin: U of Texas P, 1994.

Lowenthal, David and Lambros Comitas, editors. Consequences of Class and Color: West               Indian Perspectives. New York: Anchor Press, 1973.

Rogozinski, Jan. A Brief History of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and Carib to the                  Present. New York: Facts On File, 1999.

Bilbiography

Abrahams, Roger D. The Man-of-Words in the West Indies. Maryland: Johns Hopkins UP, 1983.

A collection of essays that focus, as the introduction says, on the “verbal performer in the English-speaking Caribbean” (xv). These essays provide different perspectives on “street lore” and the oral tradition that emerged from Africa by way of the Caribbean, and are directed at scholars, rather than for young students.

Agard, John and Grace Nichols, editors. A Caribbean Dozen: Poems from Caribbean Poets              Cambridge: Candlewick, 1988.

Picture book with color illustrations by Cathie Felstead. Includes dozens of poems by Caribbean poets. Book includes black and white photographs of the poets with a short autobiography about each one.

Bailey, Maxine and Sharon M. Lewis. Sistahs. Toronto: Playwrites Canada Press, 1994.

A poignant and humorous short story presented as a play about a woman, Sandra, who is dying of cancer. Sandra draws upon her Caribbean ancestry and the strength of four special women in her life to make soup, because she believes that cooking is “women’s magic…a way to heal,” and reconnect with her roots. Recommended for mature readers.

Biddle, Arthur W., et al. Global Voices: Contemporary Literature from the Non-Western               World. Upper Saddle River: Prentice, 1995.

A collection of contemporary literature written in English or presented in translation from the major regions of the world including the Caribbean, Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and East Asia. Each regional selection includes an essay outlining relevant historical and social information (includes maps).

Donnell, Alison and Sarah Lawson Welsh, editors. The Routledge Reader in Caribbean
            Literature. London: Routlege, 1996.

This is an anthology of contemporary Caribbean literature.

Eoyang, Eugene Chen. “The Many ‘Worlds’ in World Literature: Pound and Waley as Translator of              Chinese. essay from Sarah Lawall, ed. Reading World Literature: Theory, History,               Practice. Austin: U of Texas P, 1994.

Essay explores the difficulties of translating foreign texts.

Equiano, Olaudah. The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus              Vassa, The African, Written by Himself. New York: W.W. Norton, 2001.

The life of an enslaved African in the Caribbean, who travels the world as a slave on a ship and eventually buys his own freedom and writes about his extraordinary experiences (includes several critical reviews and contextual source material, maps, and photocopies of historical documents).

Greene, Thomas M. “Misunderstanding Poetry: Teaching outside the Western Canon” essay from              Sarah Lawall, ed. Reading World Literature: Theory, History, Practice. Austin: U
           of Texas P, 1994.

Essay explores the difficulties of teaching poetry/literature in translation.

Hallworth, Grace. Down by the River: Afro-Caribbean Rhymes, Games, and Songs for                Children. New York: Scholastic, 1996.

Colorful picture book with illustrations by Caroline Binch that accompany contemporary Afro-Caribbean rhymes and songs for children.

Harrison, Gary “What is World Literature?” Albuquerque: UNM Course Packet, 2002.

Informative essay that explores the theme “What is world literature?”

Hill, Errol, ed. A Time and a Season: Eight Caribbean Plays. Port of Spain: Superservice,1976.

A collection of eight previously unpublished Caribbean plays that focus on the theme of freedom: four plays are from English-speaking countries and four plays are from Spanish-speaking countries and have been translated into English. Carifesta ‘76 sponsored this publication. The plays offer some interesting insights into the cultural conflicts and the social struggles faced by many people in the Caribbean. Recommended for high school or older audiences, as some plays involve mature themes in addition to the theme of freedom.

Howes, Barbara, ed. From the Green Antilles: Writings of the Caribbean. New York:
            Macmillan, 1966.

An anthology of Caribbean literature written in English with other works in translation. The book is divided into English, French, Spanish and Dutch sections, and includes a variety of popular and lesser-known contemporary writers. Includes brief “Biographical Notes” at the end of the anthology.

Jekyll, Walter. I Have A News. New York: Lothrop, 1994.

Includes childhood rhymes from the Caribbean. Colorful picture book with illustrations by Jacqueline Mair.

Laguerre, Michel. Afro-Caribbean Folk Medicine. South Hadley: Bergin and Garvey, 1987.

This is a study of folk medical knowledge in the Caribbean, including the making and evolution of slave medicine through contemporary medical ideology and techniques. It provides an interesting definition of illness (e.g., conceptions of blood and hot-cold balance in the human body) and an analysis of the religious side of healing.

Lamming, George. In the Castle of My Skin. New York: First Collier, 1970.

This is a bittersweet autobiographical coming-of-age story that is told through the eyes of a child. Lamming skillfully describes the childhood adventures and relates the passing conversations of a young black boy growing up in Barbados. As he narrates the story, Lamming draws the reader in by his use of the local dialect and the colloquial speech of the island people. Best used with mature students. Although witty and intelligent, the story includes some explicit scenes that may not be appropriate for younger children.

Lawall, Sarah, ed., et al. The Norton Anthology of World Literature. 2nd ed. New York: W.W.              Norton, 2002.

Volume F. Part of a six volume anthology of world literature that includes works from Asia, Africa, central Asia and India, the Near East, Europe, and North and South America from approximately 2500 BC to the present (includes maps).

---.      Reading World Literature: Theory, History, Practice. Austin: U of Texas P, 1994.

            Explores the value of, as well as the difficulties of, reading world literature.

Lent, John A., ed. Caribbean Popular Culture. Bowling Green: Bowling Green SUPP, 1990.

Over ten years old now, this book is probably no longer current as far as “popculture” goes, but its still interesting for the sake of following trends and providing background for your own knowledge about the Caribbean and its worldwide influence in the areas of music, art, carnival, etc.

Louis, Liliane Nerette, Fred J. Hay, ed. When Night Falls, Kric! Krac! Haitian Folktales.             Englewood: Libraries Unlimited, 1999.

Instead of beginning a story with “Once upon a time…” the Haitian storytellers traditionally say, “Kric!” when they’re ready to begin a story, and the listeners respond by saying, “Krac!” This book is full of wonderful Haitian stories that stem from the African oral tradition. Many of the stories include Bouki, a foolish fellow, and Malis, a clever character. All of the stories are presented in English, but some also include a few words or a side-by-side translation in Kreyól (Creole), which is one of Haiti’s national languages in addition to French. (The introduction includes information on Haitian history, society, culture, and beliefs.)

Lowenthal, David and Lambros Comitas, editors. Consequences of Class and Color: West               Indian Perspectives. New York: Anchor Press, 1973.

This is one of four volumes on West Indian Perspectives. The other three volumes edited by Lowenthal and Comitas include Slaves, Free Men, Citizens; Work and Family Life; and The Aftermath of Sovereignty. Although, this is not the most recent publication regarding the Caribbean, it provides some interesting background on the history of the region. It includes a series of essays on race, color, education, language, and culture, and a previously unpublished letter from 1916 by Marcus Garvey, regarded by many as the “greatest ‘black prophet and visionary’” since the emancipation, as well as “Jamaica’s first National Hero” (qtd in Lownethal 49-50). It also includes information on the Ras Tafari movement. Interesting background information for educators but, perhaps, too tedious for students.

Mitchell, Rita Phillips. Hue Boy. New York: Dial Books, 1993.

Colorful picture book with illustrations by Caroline Binch. Story about a small island boy who wants desperately to grow up, but finally learns to accept himself as he is.

Newson, Adele S., and Linda Strong-Leek, ed. Winds of Change: The Transforming Voices of              Caribbean Women Writers & Scholars. New York: Peter Lang, 1998.

This resource is the result of the 1996 International Conference of Caribbean Women Writers and Scholars held at Florida International University. This literary body of work celebrates and gives voice to the “multilingual, multiracial, multiplicitous societies” of Caribbean women.

Prince, Mary. The History of Mary Prince, A West Indian Slave. London: Penguin, 2000.

Recorded narrative of Mary Prince that describes her life from childhood to adulthood as a slave in the Caribbean under different owners, to her eventual freedom in London (includes supplemental information about the period).

Rogozinski, Jan. A Brief History of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and Carib to the
            Present. New York: Facts On File, 1999.

Comprehensive background information about the history of the Caribbean islands. A very helpful resource on major events that have taken place in the region since first European contact, colonization, slavery, and emancipation, including other significant events through the late twentieth century.

Schwartz-Bart, Simone., Barbara Bray trans. The Bridge of Beyond. New York: Atheneum,               1974.

Translated from French by Barbara Bray, The Bridge of Beyond is a coming-of-age narrative that is warmly and poetically told by the main character, Télumée Miracle, the great-granddaughter of freed slaves. The novel focuses on the lives of three generations of women and takes place on the island of Guadaluope.

Sherlock, Philip. West Indian Folk-tales. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1996.

Entertaining selection of folk-tales retold by Philip Sherlock with black and white illustrations by Joan Kiddell-Monroe. Includes many stories about Anansi, the spider monkey, as well as stories that explain why things are the way they are, and how they got that way.

Smorkaloff, Pamela Maria, ed. If I Could Write This in Fire: An Anthology of Literature
            from the Caribbean. New York: New Press, 1994.

As this anthology states in its introduction, it “aims to offer the reader a panorama of literature(s) of the Caribbean(s) through which to explore what the writers themselves have to say” (2). It includes sections devoted to “The Plantation and Maroon Society,” Rural Peasantry,” “Decolonization and the Colonial Education,” “Inter-Caribbean Relations,” “Modern Life,” and “Identity.” This contemporary anthology takes its title, If I Could Write This in Fire… from one of the essays on identity by the Jamaican writer, Michelle Cliff.