The Economics of Migration: Understanding motivations for migration, its impact on the economy,
and the immigrant experience through literature.
An interdisciplinary unit for high school economics and literature classes.

Michael Wahl

Academic Setting

I am currently teaching economics at Albuquerque High School. The school has a strong tradition here in the city, and the student population has a diverse ethnic background. Albuquerque High School is about sixty-five percent Hispanic, fifteen percent Anglo, ten percent African American, and the remaining ten percent coming from primarily Native American and Asian backgrounds. AHS is considered an “inner city” school, and many of the characteristics of inner schools from throughout the country apply to this particular institution. These characteristics can be both positive and negative. For example, at AHS, educators can enjoy a diverse population of students who come from a variety a culture groups. The students, generally speaking, have an inherent appreciation for classmates who come from diverse backgrounds. Often, the students are coming from a culture that is considered a minority culture in relation to the dominant Anglo population of the surrounding region. For educators with an appreciation for cultural diversity, and a respect and understanding of the interests, as well as the difficulties that these minority populations face, the experience can be very enriching. Unfortunately, Albuquerque High School is confronted with some realities that many find hard to cope with; a high drop out rate, chronic absenteeism, as well as a relatively low learning curve. Given these characteristics, it is imperative that educators learn to develop a learning atmosphere that serves to maintain a high level of student interest. And it is important that educators who instruct in the inner city environments create lessons that “include” the student’s minority groups as an integral aspect of the economic, social, and political life of the community as a whole. These students, more than those of the dominant cultural group, need to feel that they are a positive influence in the development of a harmonious society.

            Classes at Albuquerque High are scheduled as three fifty minute periods per week, and one day a week students have an extended period, with extra time allotted for projects that require extended periods of time. You might say that this represents a partially blocked schedule.

            Educators at Albuquerque High school are expected to follow established curriculum guidelines, and they are encouraged to develop lessons that have defined objectives, and are driven by standards that have been outlined by the state of New Mexico. However, the educators do have a degree of professional license given them to develop their own programs the way they feel will best serve the student.

Rationale

I have chosen to develop a unit on the economics of migration for a variety of reasons. As I stated above, when working in a school with large minority populations of students, it is important to develop units and lessons that they can relate to. Students need to feel that the material they are covering applies directly to their own unique way of life. I am working with a large number of students of Latin descent, so I am attempting to introduce economics as it relates to many of them. Studying the patterns of immigration to the U.S. from Mexico and the role that migrant workers from Mexico play here in New Mexico is one way to tap into the personal experience that many of these students share. Also, many of these young people feel that they are not always seen as bonafide Americans, even though the majority are U.S. citizens.   Since this is an interdisciplinary unit, I want to introduce to students of economics literature that has been produced by these immigrants of Latin origins, “Chicanos,” so they might read about, and hopefully develop some understanding with these people, and become more aware of the prevailing social conditions. To do this, the students need to understand a few basic concepts.

            A. Assimilation vs Pluralism? Yes, the age old topic relates to this unit, if only as a recap of the continuing dialogue in America regarding immigrants, foreign nationals, and the varied minority groups that form what we know as the United States of America. Is the United States a “Melting Pot,” or a “Salad Bowl?” Do we want a society which is molded into a single culture that is an “American” culture? And if so, is there really an “American” economic model that we follow? Or do we strive to integrate minority cultures, such as African Americans, Japanese, Chinese, Mexicans, Native Americans, and Puerto Ricans, to name but a few, into the American way of life in such a manner that customs, religions, and artistic and literary achievements are valued on an equal footing? The jury is still out on this one. This is actually a central question that can be investigated using a variety of strategies. I want to introduce literature written by migrants, immigrants, and those Americans of Latin descent, in order to offer a vehicle to the students that will steer them toward a self consciousness that will offer to them another perspective. Though we operate in this country by promoting respect for minority cultures, and we value the right to freedom of speech, there still exist many critics. There are many who feel that we should not be offering bilingual education in public schools. There are those who feel that business should be conducted soley in English. There are those who are actually offended by listening to languages other than English being spoken on the streets. But by and large, the majority in the country support the concept of multiculturalism, and the students need to understand this.

            B. How can studying literature broaden the study of other disciplines, and bring to what were once seemingly abstract, theoretical subjects, a human face? Economics, to many, seems at times to be void of compassion for the human condition. The booms and busts, they say, will swing through society and bring profits and comfort during one period, and unemployment and suffering during the next. The study of economics seldom focuses on the human condition as a result of the implementation of the various structures. If we study the human condition in conjunction with the economic theories and models, then the students are offered the opportunity to relate with the subject on a personal level. This human condition can be reflected in the literature that is developed by individuals whose experiences relate for the reader the realities certain economic systems or policies, and the impacts, positive or negative, have on people. For example, Ernesto Galarza has written a book called, Barrio Boy. In it, he depicts the life of a young Mexican boy, himself, as he is raised as a youth in Mexico, and eventually travels to the United States. The story is based upon the authors own experience, and it offers the reader an opportunity to empathize with the joys and frustrations that Galarza experienced in his move to Sacramento, California. The story addresses a lot of the economic motivations surrounding such migratory changes, and enables the reader to humanize an occurrence that takes place on a daily basis between Mexico and the United States.

            C. How is the literature that they will be reading considered a part of “World Literature?” The short stories from Mexican migrant workers, for example, certainly cannot be considered “classics.” Should Chicano literature be considered world literature? I want to teach the students that topical, or thematic literature, that relates for the reader a social condition, or articles that are designed to develop an awareness to a social condition, can be every much a part of world literature as is the work of Shakespeare, or Lady Murasaki. In an essay by Gary Harrison, Professor of English at the University of New Mexico, he quotes Wolfgang von Goethe who stated, “World literature is not just the sum total of all literatures written over time throughout the world; rather, it is a literature, produced by men and women who are aware of their participation in a cross-cultural exchange of ideas, that is self-conscious of its place in a world of shared values and that transcends the material and cultural differences inherent in nations and local cultures”(4). High school students need to feel that their place in the world is based upon shared values. They are aware of the cross-cultural exchange of ideas. They want to feel that the Chicano movement expressed shared values that at times transcend the material and cultural differences. What Goethe expressed centuries ago has a place with the Hispanic mind set of those in the Southwest today. And moreover, these types of principles can be expressed as social phenomenons, as economics is a social phenomenon. Wolfgang von Goethe had an idea about world literature. Harrison wrote that Goethe, “assumed a community of writers exchanging ideas, corresponding with each other, and meeting face to face” (3,4). Goethe believed in a certain sense of multiculturalism. He believed that, “The world at large, no matter how vast it may be, is only an expanded homeland...”; nonetheless, nations ought not, “to think alike, but.... to become aware of and comprehend one another” (4). I am attempting to promote comprehension and appreciation by reading the literature of these migrants and immigrants who share common values that transcend national and cultural boundaries.

Goals

1. We will provide a brief review of the New Mexican economy. This would include major industries, as well as the service industries.   The agricultural economy is of great importance, as many Hispanics are involved in this particular sector of the economy. The students will also explore the relationship between the private and public sectors, and how they impact the structure in general.   Within this framework, we will research, and chart the ethnic makeup of those employed in this economy, placing a special emphasis on Hispanics who have immigrated to New Mexico within the recent past. We will want to show which industries display higher concentrations of the various ethnic populations, and have the students make responsible interpretations of this data. Finally, we will want to explore how what is and what has been happening in New Mexico correlates to a “global” economy.

            2. The students will attempt to define how immigrants and migrant workers affect the economy of New Mexico. What types of benefits are achieved by both the employers and employees? What types of frictions are generated by employing migrant workers, and how can these problems promote stereotyping and racism?

            3. Promote the study of economics, and the numerous social impacts that the various economic structures have on society; in our case on New Mexico. We want to apply this to a more micro study of the region, and to introduce literature as a means for understanding the migrant, or immigrant as an individual. The general idea is to create a sense of awareness and understanding among the students by introducing literature which portrays the experiences of these people.

            4. And finally, it is certainly a goal to have the students understand that there is a canon of literature coming from the region where they live that has been, and continues to be created by the people of their ancestry. They should also realize that this literature serves more than some social purpose of creating an awareness, but that it is profoundly well conceived, and that some of these authors rank with some of the best in the world. They will also learn that literature can be studied in conjunction with other disciplines to impart a human element, thus creating a personal connection with the student’s own personal history.

            Many may find the integration of Hispanic literature into an economics course complicated, or out of the ordinary. It represents for me a wonderful opportunity to teach the students about economics, while at the same time incorporating a cross section of material and subject matter to broaden the scope of the study. After all, any given economy, be it regional or global, impacts humans in so many different ways. The economic structure beats in unison with the political, social, and the cultural heartbeat of a given society. How society functions economically, socially, or politically is often recorded through the literature of those involved.   It is often said that the study of economics is so abstract that not only does it confuse students, but the very nature of the study serves to remove the reality or human element from the course. What better way, than the introduction of literature as relates to the human experience, to return to the study a sense of compassion and understanding for those caught up in the “machine.”

Context and Background

The migration of Latin Americans to North America is a journey dating back some five hundred years. Hispanics were here in the region before the Anglos arrived. New Mexico was once a part of New Spain, the Spanish colonies in Central and North America, dating from the early 1500’s until the Independance of Mexico from Spain in 1821. Between 1821 and 1848, New Mexico was a part of the northern domain of the United States of Mexico. In 1846, the United States went to war with Mexico, and it was not until the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, when the majority of the present day southwest United States was ceded to the United States of America by Mexico as one of the provisions for ending the war. So in essence, the United States came to the Hispanics of the Southwest, and not the other way around.   The same holds true for the Anglo settlers who eventually populated the region. New Mexico was originally Native American, and then Hispanic. These two groups lived together, not always so harmoniously, for about three hundred years before the Anglos arrived.   This three hundred year period was enough time to create a rich culture in the Southwest, where a new “cosmic race” if you will, was formed through the procreation of the original Native Americans and the Hispanic and mestizo people who had migrated from southern territories in New Spain, or from the Iberian peninsula in what is today Spain proper. So the Anglo population in the southwest United States is, relatively speaking, a more modern phenomenon than that of the older Native American and Hispanic culture.

            In more recent times, the United States has witnessed a tremendous wave of immigration into the United States from Latin America, primarily from Mexico. This has been a steady pattern of movement to the north; however, certain factors have given rise to greater displacements of the population from the south. For example, many Mexicans came to the United States during the tumultuous twenty year period between the wars for independance in New Spain (1810-18221) and the Mexican American War (1846-1848). There was another great migration from Mexico following their wars for the Revolution (c. 1906-1918). And the post World War II period has given rise to a constant steam of newcomers into the United States from not only Mexico, but the other Latin American nations as well.

            There are Hispanics in our immediate region of New Mexico, but they fall into different classifications. For example, many of the citizens here are descended from the original Spanish who settled here before any Anglo inhabitants had ever arrived. Of course these people cannot be considered immigrants, as their families represented some of the original inhabitants of the region. Next, there are Hispanics who have lived here in the United States for generations, even though their families may have migrated north many years ago. These citizens fall into a similar classification. Then there are those who have recently immigrated from the south. These individuals fall into two groups, legal residents and illegal aliens. Legal residents have documents which are legally binding, and they are afforded full rights under the law of the United States. They may work, attend school, purchase property, etc. Illegal aliens are those individuals who have crossed into the United States without proper documentation. They do not possess legal rights to work or reside here. However they are afforded certain protections which have been recorded through charters such as the Declaration of Human Rights. In any event, the reality is many come illegally, and many work here illegally. This will make up a significant portion of our study of the migrant populations, and their interaction with the economy.

The Economic Impact of Mexican Immigration:

The size and composition by national origin of the immigrant flow into the United States has changed substantially in recent decades. The most historic trend is the rapid increase in the number of Mexican - born persons who choose to migrate to the United States. Between 1981 and 1990, about 1.7 million Mexicans entered the United States legally, or about 23% of the total flow. This can be compared to the 300,000 Mexican born persons who entered the country legally during the 1950’s. This shift of size and national origin of immigrants has been cause for much debate, and a rapidly growing literature documents the economic impact of immigration on the United States (Bosworth155).

            The economic impact of immigration from Mexico is determined not only by immigration statutes, but also by the large numbers of Mexicans who choose to enter the country illegally. True numbers are hard to come by because of the lack of data, and the difficulty in tracking these highly mobile migrant workers, but the number of illegal aliens apprehended by the border patrol began to increase dramatically in the 1980’s. These apprehensions peaked in 1986, when nearly a million Mexican, and 96,000 non-Mexican illegal aliens were apprehended. In 1986, congress enacted the Immigration Reform and Control Act, which provided amnesty to many already here, and imposed sanctions on employers caught hiring illegals. But this did little to stop the flow, as over 1,000,000 illegal aliens were again apprehended in 1994. The combination of large flows of both legal and illegal Mexican immigrants has had a substantial impact on the economy of the United States, but there is no evidence to suggest that this impact has been necessarily a negative one.

            The typical Mexican immigrant tends to be disproportionately male, relatively young, and living in a large household. Another distinguishing feature is that these immigrants have a very low skill level and economic performance. They tend to be at a wage differential, earning about thirty to forty percent less than native workers. This is significantly less than other non-Mexican immigrants, and experts believe it is a result of their being in the labor market for a short period of time. In other words, the longer an immigrant stays, the deeper his or her roots, the higher their wage will likely be. Economists generally interpret wage differentials to skill differences. Unfortunately, the relative difference in skill level for Mexican immigrants has become wider in the past three decades.

            There has been much debate over the whether or not the presence of large numbers of low skilled immigrants have had an adverse effect on the employment opportunities of less skilled native workers. Do the immigrants, “take away jobs?” There exists a mountain of literature regarding this central debate, but the result of much of the study points to the fact that little evidence exists for the accusation that low skilled immigrants lower the wage of low skilled native workers; rather it can cause a shift in the labor market, a new “white flight” if you will. Many low skilled native workers tend to relocate to areas where there is less competition for their services.

            One pronounced impact of the influx of low skilled immigrants is the increased expenditures of welfare programs. It is true that many immigrant families enroll in these social service programs. This in turn causes the debate about the need for immigration reform to increase in strength.

            Overall, the Mexican immigrants increase the number of workers in the work force. American firms can benefit, because they hire labor at a lower wage. This causes consumers to gain, because goods and services become available to the consumer at a lower price. In summary, gains accruing to those using or consuming immigrant services exceed the losses suffered by U.S. native workers. Studies have consistently shown that the U.S. economy gains as a whole, but that the gains are relatively minimal. No evidence has surfaced thus far to illustrate a negative effect of Mexican immigration on the national economy. These recent waves of migration need to be examined through the study of globalization in general.

The Global Economy and Globalization

We now live not just as Americans, but as part of the global economy. Global integration has increased dramatically over the past several decades. There are a variety of reasons for this, but the advancement in telecommunications has had the most profound impact. The first transatlantic telegraph cable was completed in 1866. Before then, it took two weeks to find out the price of the dollar in London. The telegraph cable reduced that time to two minutes. With the invention of the computer chip, communications really took off. Now communications satellites circle the earth constantly, and fiber optic cables are being placed throughout much of the developed world. We can consider many ways in which satellite television has transformed the information received in the eastern hemisphere. Before the 1990’s, virtually all of the television and radio available in the eastern hemisphere was state-run and state-controlled. Today, people in Asia receive sports, music, soap operas, news, and advertisements free of government control via satellite. Throughout time, especially since the invention of printing presses, the world has become a much smaller place. People are more mobile now, and information is received in seconds.

            Because of the speed and power of computers, and the affordability of telecommunications, the world has become one financial market. This globalization started in the 1960’s and 70’s when the United States banks developed worldwide branch networks for loans and foreign exchange trading. Today money and financial markets are truly global.

            Direct foreign investment in the United States has increased to the point where some Americans want to restrict it. Direct foreign investment is evidence of the global integration of the economy. Foreigners purchase billions of dollars worth of real estate and businesses in the United States, and this investment increases when turmoil arises in other parts of the globe. But despite the concern many have about foreign investment, the total share of foreign ownership of American industries is about six percent (Miller 539). The United States’ share of worldwide direct investment is more than forty percent. National boundaries are no longer the end point for a nations’ economic participation, and the involvement in a global economy brings the many peoples of the globe still closer together.

            Multinational corporations play a major role in globalization and the global economy. By the mid 1990’s there were 35,000 multinationals with 170,000 affiliates, or branches of these firms. Many multinational corporations invest worldwide, but most do not. Most invest in regions that are close to home. There is no wonder that so many American-owned multinationals do business in Central and South America. Mexico is the second largest trading partner of the United States. These corporations not only bridge the globe economically, but serve to superimpose culture in host countries. The need for cultural awareness and comprehension has never been greater. Beyond multinational direct investments in other countries are alliances. Governments often insist that companies enter their markets through joint ventures. This enables a dissemination of technology, as well as greater cultural exchange.

            One of the results of globalization is increased immigration. America has become a truly multicultural society because of such immigration. The Hispanic population of the United States increased more than fifty percent in the 1980’s, and it is believed that by 2050 the Hispanic population in the United States will reach twenty-five percent of the population. This degree of diversity means that now more than ever Americans need to develop open mindedness and tolerance. Tolerance can be defined as a fair, objective, and permissive attitude toward the opinions, practices, religions, races, and nationalities of others that differ from one’s own (Miller 547).

            As a novel for the unit, I use Barrio Boy, by Ernesto Galarza. This is a story of a young boy from Nayarit, Mexico, who grows up under difficult circumstances during the Mexican revolution of the early 1900’s. As a boy he learns and grows as an integral part of his extended family. The story expresses for the reader the economy of a small mountain community. How each member of the family contributes for the benefit of the common good of the community works well for an economics class learning the basic principles of economics. The coming of the revolution, as well as the economic hardship the young Ernesto and his family face forces them to relocate a number of times in order to seek work, as well as to stay free of the government patrols in search of conscripts for the war. The family is forced to leave their community of Jalcocotan in the mountains of Nayarit, and travel to the city of Tepic. A new economy is introduced, and Ernesto learns many new things about people, the economy, and the struggle to survive while maintaining a sense of dignity. Even though these events take place at the turn of the century, the themes are alive and well, and very relevant to the contemporary student. The war, along with an influx of refugees into the cities of Tepic and Mazatlan, forces Ernesto and his family to eventually migrate to the United States. They enter in Nogalez, and eventually move east to Sacramento, California. Here young Ernesto lives, in a sense, a “double life.” One is as a young Mexican American in the Barrio, where Spanish is spoken in the home, and Mexican cultural traditions are presented. The other is the life as a young boy going to an American school, learning English, and developing a sense of what it is to be an American. This story is wonderfully written, and offers the reader a sense of shared culture and value, while allowing the reader to identify with the joy and hardship of a typical Mexican immigrant family.

Implementation

New Mexico State Literature and Social Studies standards for grades 10-12 have been taken from the State Department of Education web site at (http://sde.state.nm.us). I have referenced the standards by number for brevity.

Lesson: Internet Research: New Mexico and Immigration

General New Mexico standards addressed: A-7,8 B-9 C-7,8, D-9,10,11 E-9 F-22

Though there are a wealth of sites on immigration that the students can access, I offer them the following two in order to complete the following an overview on Immigration in New Mexico:

1. http://www.fairus.org

This is FAIR Federation for American Immigration Reform

2. http://www.ncpa.org

This is the National Center for Policy Analysis - Idea House

What the teacher wants from the students is an idea of how many immigrants are in New Mexico, where they come from, and what they do here.

Students will access data for the following from the FAIR web site:
population                                 Legal Immigrant Admission
foreign born population              Refugee Admission
Immigrant stock                         Illegal Alien Population
Naturalized U.S. citizens            NM Immigrants by Country

The students are required to make at least one graph for at least one of the research categories.

From the NCPA web site students should research one of the following the following:

1. Do immigrants threaten American jobs?
2. Why has the U.S. foreign born population swelled in the 1990’s?
3. List general characteristics of a Mexican immigrant.
4. Are immigrants prepared for the U.S. economy?
5. What benefits do immigrants bring with them?
6. Why does the U.S. depend on immigrant workers?
7. What stereotypes exist about immigrants?

The teacher should insure that all of these topics are covered by the students.

Material should be presented in an open forum. Students will be graded on the completion of their research, as well as on the presentation of the material.

Lesson: Barrio Boy, by Ernesto Galarza Readings From The teacher and applied exercises.

General New Mexico standards addressed: A-7,8,9 B-9 C-7,8, 3-D-i,ii 6-D-ii 9-D iii F-22 E-9,12

Students are asked to sit back and enjoy this story which is read to them by the teacher over the course of the semester. As I generally discuss globalization and immigration in economics toward the end of the semester, there exists the opportunity for me to read to the students over the course of the term. I find I can get through the book if I take about an hour or an hour and a half a week. There are certain sections I will pass over for the sake of the proper allotment of time, but little is missed on the part of the student. Students are required to keep a journal of Ernesto’s journey. The real wealth of the lesson is revealed in the discussions that take place, as we attempt to bring this immigrant family and their journey into our classroom.

Lesson: Interview Project

General New Mexico standards addressed: A-7,8 B-9, C-7,8

Students will create a questionnaire, and provide questions that they will ask an immigrant from Mexico who now resides in the U.S. Questions might include:

* When and why did you move here?
* What are some of the differences and similarities between your native country and the United States?
* How has living here changed your perception of this country? And how has it changed your perception of Mexico?
* How has your transition into the local economy affected your family?

These are some samples of what the students can use. The idea is to contact immigrants, and to develop a relationship on a more personal level. These projects can be discussed in class, and students can decide if any consensus has been formulated. Some of those interviewed can be invited to the classroom to share their experiences.

Lesson: Chuppies: Three Generations of an Immigrant Family from Puebla. Taken from New Americans: An Oral History by Al Santoli

General New Mexico standards addressed: D-9,10,11 E-9 F-22

Pass out copies of interview. This interview was taken in El Paso and gives the reader some insight into one family who migrated, and is living and working as an integral part of the community. The information presented can serve to answer many questions young people may have about why many Mexicans immigrate to the U.S., and how their lives are affected. I read this in a reading circle insuring that everyone participates.

Each student is required to make at least one comment about the interview to receive participation points.

Lesson: Understanding Mexicans Through Contemporary Mexican Authors.

General New Mexico standards addressed 3-D-i,ii, 6-D-ii, 9-D-i,ii,iii

In this lesson the teacher will hand out seventeen different short stories from Mexican authors who were born in the 1950’s and 60’s. Many of these have never been published in English before. The stories are short, generally no more than four or five pages. They are taken from the book entitled

Points of Departure, by Monica Levin. This is a true interdisciplinary lesson primarily focusing on Mexican literature, and designed to give the students a perception of life through the eyes of a typical Mexican. The stories offer a sharp sense of irony, incongruity, and hilarity, along with a sense of fatalism in the face of reality, where poverty, lawlessness, and urban decay coexist along side innocent dreams and love. The teacher can hand out a story to each child to be read as a homework assignment. The following two or three days can be used as a readers discussion circle where these stories are presented. The objective here is a continuing of the attempt to understand the Mexican as a human spirit, and to come to a shared sense of value with the group.

Lesson: Essay Reflection: Article from USA Today entitled, “USA just wouldn’t work without immigrant labor. Demand will continue to grow for high and low skilled.” By Laura Parker at http://www.usatoday.com/usatonline/20010723/3502675s.htm

General New Mexico State standards addressed A-7,8,9, C-7,8

Students will read the article by Laura Parker and write an essay which highlights the following points:

a. What has the current wave of Mexican immigration looked like in the past twenty years?

b. What type of work is done by the majority of these immigrants?

c. Why is the U.S. economy dependent on these immigrants?

d. What does the Bush administration propose to do about the current situation with regard to illegal immigrants?

e. How do labor unions feel about the status of illegals, and why do you think they want these illegals documented and working?

f. What is the future outlook for immigrants coming into the U.S. look like for the next couple of decades?

g.       Does Laura Parker feel like there will be an economic place for these immigrants?

Documentation

Bibliography

Bosworth, Barry et al. Coming Together. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1997.

This work was used for gathering much statistical data, as well as reviewing various forms of research regarding immigration patterns and motivations.

Connor, Walker. Mexican-Americans in Comparative Perspective. Washington DC: The Urban Institute Press, 1985.

This book covers detailed investigations of immigrants, and their relative status and standards of living in Mexico as well as their host country.

Fair: The Federation For American Immigration Reform. “New Mexico State Profile.” July 16,              2002. http://www.fairus.org/html/042nm702.htm

This web site has a wealth of information on immigration; both statistical data, as well as current reform policy and perspective. It is an excellent resource for students looking for information from general to specific.

Galarza, Ernesto. Barrio Boy. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press. 1971.

This book is the novel I read for my students, and is explained in some detail in the context and background section of the unit.

Harrison, Gary. “What Is World Literature.” Course Reading Packet: ATI Summer Seminar             Contemporary World Literature, 2002.

Professor Harrison wrote this work and used it in our seminar. It offers the reader various perspectives about world literature, and the different ways to approach the discipline as a course.

Idea House: National Center For policy Analysis. “Immigration Issues.” July 16, 2002. http://www.ncpa.org/pd/immigrat/pd052300d.html

This web site is another site for researching immigration policy, data, and contemporary reports and articles which relate to the study.

Knippling, Alpana Sharma. New Immigrant Literatures in the United States. Westport, Coonecticutt: Greenwood Press, 1996.

A wonderful collection of stories from immigrants living in the United States. Teachers can copy many of these stories for classroom use.

Lavin, Monica. Points of Departure: New Stories from Mexico. San Francisco, CA: City Lights Books. 2001.

I use all seventeen of these short stories written by various Mexican authors. They average about four pages, and cover a wide range of topics which give the students some insight into the Mexican mindset and perspective.

Miller, Roger Leroy. Economics: Today & Tomorrow. New York: Glemcoe/McGraw Hill, 1995.

This is the economics text I use at Albuquerque High School.

Parker, Laura. “USA just wouldn’t work without immigrant labor Demand will continue to grow for              high-and low-skilled.” USA Today Newspaper Stories. July 16, 2002. www.usatoday.com

This is a wonderful article from the US Today web site. It covers many relevant concepts of immigration and how it relates to the U.S. economic and political system.

Santoli, Al. New Americans: An Oral History. New York: Ballentine Books, 1988.

I use this book for one of the interviews of a family who migrated from Puebla, Mexico. It is a collection of stories from immigrants from all over the globe.