Predynastic Egypt I

Environment and Lower Egypt Predynastic

Introduction

1. Until about 5000 BC the Nile populations existed on broad-spectrum exploitation of the lush Nilotic environment (with roots going back at least to the 13^th millennium BC Kom Ombo Plain) with nomadic pastoralism emerging in the grassy plains to the east and west. These regions, now the Eastern and Western Deserts of the Sahara and Red Sea Hills received a somewhat larger rainfall during this period, supporting this natural growth. Thus, during the time when the Neolithic had since 8000 BC been evolving further east, Egypt remained largely a non-agricultural region.

2. By 5000 BC cereals and animals were domesticated in the Nile Valley. The domesticates mostly diffused from further east (barley, wheat, sheep, goat, pig) with the exception of cattle, whose domestication was probably an outgrowth of earlier Saharan pastoralism. From this time there was rapid and diversified evolution of an Egyptian Neolithic way of life leading in a relatively short period of time (compared with the eastern areas of the Middle east) to "urban" Pharaonic civilization by 3000 BC.

3. The rise of Egyptian civilization was similar to that of Mesopotamia in some important ways, but differed from it in others:

- both emerged in the 2nd half of the 4th millennium BC.

- both involved the ability to unify large populations spread over extensive areas.

- both subsisted on hydraulic agriculture made possible by great river systems.

- both evolved in areas distant from raw resources, requiring long-distance trade.

4. But there were also very strong differences:

- The Nile flood regime was very regular and predictable by contrast with Tigris/Euphrates. This influenced both the physical and psychological structure of Egyptian society.

- Egypt, once united, maintained this unity for 3000 years unlike Mesopotamia with its competing cities and polities.

- Egypt developed a centralized political/religious structure centered on a single individual – a divine king, this is unlike the Mesopotamian situation where divine kingship never really took root and leaders were servants of the gods instead of being divine themselves.

- The wider geographical context of Egypt was one of relative isolation, not one of easy access like the Tigris/Euphrates.

5. All of these physical and cultural qualities describe a civilization that evolved in a very distinct way. While there were early similarities and connections, later long-term contacts, and parallels in overall strategies and accomplishments, Egypt evolved in a direction very different from Mesopotamia (and the Indus, and Central Asian civilizations).

Environment and Subsistence Potential

1. The Nile Valley has a narrow North-South configuration bounded on both sides by sandstone cliffs except in the north where the wide Delta occurs.

2. The Nile plain is formed by the annual deposition of riverine silts fed by the monsoon rains of Sub-Saharan Africa, which also form high natural levees (longitudinal and transverse) that divide the river plain into natural basins that retain water after flooding.

3. This is an ideal area for lush natural wildlife. In predynastic times the Nile Valley supported an abundant riverine game (hippo, crocodile, elephant, rhino, deer), fowl, and plant regime that provided hunting throughout early Egyptian history,

4. Annual floods occurred in August and September (south to north) leaving the basins available for subsequent planting and rich late winter harvests from the replenished soils.

5. People live on the high natural levees and the edges of the desert plains beyond. This is a much more stable settlement potential than in the more volatile Tigris/Euphrates plains where violent floods could always wipe out areas of settlement.

6. This natural hydraulic pattern made canal irrigation largely unnecessary for basic flood basin agriculture. However, in later periods some artificial modification of the natural regime occurred with strengthening of the levees to retain water, short ditches to distribute water more widely, small dams across the temporary streams to retain water, simple bucket "shaduf" technology to raise water from one basin to the next and its adjacent fields, and ultimately animal-driven water wheels. This is a much simpler system than Mesopotamia and involves modification, rather than transformation, of the natural system.

7. In the Delta and the river-fed (Bahr Yusef) Fayum Depression (area around Lake Merois) the land is lower and flatter with water spreading out into extensive silt flats with lower levees and permanent lakes and swamps. The Delta is the chief repository of silt with its lower gradient - at least 10 meters silt has deposited here since 4000 BC.

8. The Nile Valley regime is basically one in which a naturally occurring stable irrigation system never required the centralized or even regionalized management of the Mesopotamian canal based-systems. Such a system implies a very different type of connection between ecology and politics, one in which the ruler linked himself with the predictability and permanence of the Nile and its products rather than using the institutions of managerial control to coerce the population.

8. However, this very stable system was subject to variation over the 3500 years of Egyptian Pharaonic civilization. Long-term drop in floods after 3000 BC affected the Fayum especially, requiring later canal construction to keep it watered. Some dryer cycles may have contributed to major ecological disruptions at the end of Old and Middle Kingdoms (late 3rd and middle 2nd millennia).

Lower Egyptian (Northern) Predynastic Period

A general broad-spectrum hunting/gathering way of life continued until at least the late 6^th millennium BC and in modified form thereafter. However, after 5000 BC a fully developed Neolithic life way appeared in the Fayum and western edge of the Delta (probably many other sites buried beneath the deep deltaic deposits) and over time replaced hunting/gathering as the dominant way of life

Fayum A Culture

1. The Fayum A and Merimde sites (ca 5000-3500 BC) were mostly excavated long ago and not well in described in the literature. Fayum A sites, the earliest sedentary sites in Egypt, were located around the original shores of Lake Merois. The comprised possibly seasonal settlements of flimsy houses constructed from poles and matting. The full spectrum of Middle East Neolithic domesticates (barley and wheat, sheep and goat, together with indigenous cattle), were used, indicating diffusion from the Levant. Communal storage bins were located outside of the houses.

2. The Fayum A culture used a quite diverse stone tool industry that clearly shows continuing reliance on hunting (hippo, crocodile, elephant in and around Lake Merois) as well as cereal use (sickles, grinding stones).

3. The crude undecorated Fayum A pottery is similar to some southern Levant types and is similar to other northern predynastic styles, contrasting in lack of elaboration, with the decorated Upper Egyptian styles.

4. There is no evidence for internal social hierarchy.

Merimde ( 4500-3500 BC)

1. Merimde, located in the western delta, shows the same early features as the Fayum A sites. Later occupations show some evolution of the earliest pattern with the construction of more substantial semi-subterranean mud houses. Houses were arranged in two small circles.

2. Merimde burials were in small clusters scattered through the village rather than the large isolated cemeteries of Upper Egypt.

Later Predynastic northern sites: A. Omari (3800-3200 BC)

Omari shows little change from the earlier settlements apart from a lessening dependency on hunting/gathering and accompanying greater use of agriculture and domesticated animals that include pig as well as the usual sheep goat and cattle shown by corrals near the site and many large storage bins. Burials were mostly in-house except later in occupation when small cemeteries appear. There is little evidence of social stratification or craft specialists.

Later Predynastic northern sites: B. Ma'adi (3500-3000 BC).

1. The site of Ma'adi in the southeastern part of the Delta eastern demonstrates expansion and elaboration of the Northern Predynastic tradition:

2. There is continuity in the basic northern Neolithic pattern of small houses of irregular size, intensive use of cereals and domesticated animals, communal and individual food storage but some additions. However, architectural innovation is evident in a small number of more elaborate semi-subterranean dwellings.

3. Several new items appear in the material inventory. Basalt vases, foreign pottery of southern Levantine origin, carnelian beads and other jewelry were in use. Some of these items originated in Upper Egypt, some in Palestine indicating the development of long-distance contacts and probably trade.

4. Intensive copper smelting and casting utilized ores from the Sinai obtained either by through direct exploitation of mines or from its importation through the agency of nomadic peoples or southern Palestinians. This metallurgy also, indicates growing craft specialization.

5. Some Ma’adi burials contained with richer grave-goods than others. In combination with the evidence for the emergence of trade and craft specialization this indicate the rise of a significant degree of labor and social differentiation and ranking.

Summary of Northern Predynastic sites

1. They are not well known or well described.

2. An undecorated pottery tradition.

3. Little evidence of social hierarchy or a society with formally ranked positions until late in Ma’adi. The evidence points to a dominant pattern of "egalitarian" kinship-ordered society.

4. Burials are located within settlements rather than in large cemeteries beyond the occupied areas. Until late in the period there is little differentiation of burials by accompanying status items.

5. Later contact with Asia and Upper Egypt.

6. Characteristic Neolithic life way, in general very like the earlier Neolithic of the Fertile Crescent.