Biodiversity Support Program (1993) African Biodiversity: Foundation for the Future--A Framework for Integrating Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Development.
- The future viability of protected areas in Africa appears to hinge on the cooperation and support of local people. This cooperation and support, in turn, depends on whether the areas can provide local communities with benefits that are sufficiently concrete for people to want to maintain the areas reserves. 104
- Any future strategies for conserving biodiversity must be extended to include the biodiversity on the 96 percent of land outside of protected areas. 106
- The paucity of good examples of participatory conservation and development projects in Africa is due, in part, to a limited understanding of the process that leads to effective participation and, in part, to the difficulty in achieving genuine participation. 106
- Efforts to involve local people in the conservation of biodiversity in Africa will not succeed in the long-term unless local people perceive those efforts as serving their economic and cultural interests. 106-7
- Strong private sector involvement is important to sustain programs, as well as to initiate new ones. p.82

Oldfield, M., and Alcorn, J. (eds.) (1991) Biodiversity: Culture, Conservation and Ecodevelopment, New York: Westview Press.
Molly Bower Kux, pp. 295-316.
- The Wildlands and Human Needs Program of the World Wildlife Fund supports work with local people to improve their livelihoods and involve them more directly with protected areas from which they have been excluded. The goal of this approach is to generate support for reserve protection from local people by improving economic productivity outside the protected area. p.301
- Strength identified as contributing to enhancement of the program's credibility were: providing support for existing and new local institutions and innovative programs, tackling issues identified by local communities as important to their survival and well being, and involving local experts and institutions in the preparation (and hopefully in the implementation) of reserve area management plans. p.302
- In Kenya's Amboseli National Park, compromise between an important national industry and local needs, with benefits to both, was the basis for the strategy that was worked out with difficulty over 15 years. In return for economic benefits (income from accommodation of migrating wildlife on their lands, new jobs, a supply of water for livestock from the park) Maasi landowners agreed to strict protection of a new 480 km2 park. p.302-3
- In the final analysis, local priorities and decisions may be the most important ruling factor in maintaining living resources. If actual control at the local level is non-existent, so too is responsibility. One can detect a certain pattern of resource deterioration that emerges from various studies, workshops, and field observations in many development countries. It is characterized by strong governments where most decisions about land-use are made in capital cities by sectorally oriented like ministries that do not consult with each other or with local governments or with local people; the result has been conflict and confusion over land and water use. p.308
- The key elements in the success of future conservation efforts abroad include: enlightened national and international economic development policies, decentralized responsibility to encourage building on proven traditional resource management techniques, and maintenance of existing (at the very least) living conditions for economically disadvantaged people.

Pimbert, M., and Pretty, M. (1995) Parks, People, and Professionals: Putting Participation into Protected Area Management, New York: United Nations Resource Institute for Social Development and The World Wildlife Fund for Nature.
- Internationally accepted criteria for defining protected areas now recognize a wide spectrum of categories ranging from strictly protected nature reserves to managed resources in protected areas. The inclusion of a category that allows the sustainable use of resources in protected areas is particularly noteworthy in this context. In this new credo, it is implied that protected areas should be managed in ways that sustain both local livelihoods and the conservation of nature. p. 2
- Indeed, it is when local people are excluded that degradation is more likely to occur. p.3
- There are no ready-made blueprints for designing protected areas that integrate environment and development into sustainable livelihoods. p.11
- Sustainable development is not so much a specific strategy as it is an approach. p.19
- It is essential to seek multiple perspectives on a problem situation by ensuring the wide involvement of different actors and groups. p.19
- If the objective is to achieve sustainable conservation, than nothing less than functional participation will suffice. All the evidence points to long-term economic and environmental success only when people's ideas and knowledge are valued and power is given to them to make decisions independently of external agencies. p.26
- What is important is to ensure that those using participation both clarify its specific application and find ways of shifting from the more common passive, consultative and incentive-driven participation towards the interactive end of the spectrum. p.27
- Action based on consensus and implementable changes represent an accommodation between the different conflicting views. This action includes local institutional building or strengthening, increasing the capacity of people to initiate action on their own. p.28
- Only by seriously examining how local communities will tangibly and immediately benefit from conservation activities will protected areas be sustainable and cost effective. The aim is to integrate development and environmental concerns by operationalizing the concept of sustainable livelihoods for all. This can be achieved through an application that emphasizes community empowerment, enabling all people to secure their basic needs and rights, and care of the environment that sustains life in all its forms. p.29
- The professional challenge for protected area management is to replace the top-down, standardized, simplified, rigid and short-term practices with local level diversified, flexible, unregulated and long-term natural resource management practices. p.29
- Analysis, choice, experiment, project design and evaluation are conducted by and with people themselves, with outside professionals assuming a facilitating and supporting role. p.30
- Systems of participatory learning and interaction imply new roles for conservation professionals, and these all require a new professionalism with new concepts, values, methods and behavior. p.30
- Protected area projects seeking to provide benefits for local and national economies should give preference to informal innovative systems, reliance on local resources and local satisfiers of human needs. p.34
- The goal of these grassroots initiatives is not to conquer or vanquish the state but to forge selective alliances with parts of the state and its bureaucracy while avoiding new clientalistic constraints. Such successful political action will gradually lead to what the excluded would view as a "better state", one where their claims and interests are taken more seriously and where authorities may be willing to tip the balance of power in their favor. In the last analysis, there may be no alternative to the joint efforts of a reformist state and a reinvigorated and organized civil society in which the excluded can make their voices heard. p.39
- When local communities have been granted secure usufruct rights over neighboring forests, governments have witnessed clear reversals in forest degradation and its associated loss of biodiversity. p.40
- Building appropriate partnerships between state and rural communities requires new legislation, policies, and institutional linkages and processes. p.42

Wells, M., Brandon, K., and Hannah, L. (1992) People and Parks: Linking Protected Area Management with Local Communities, Washington, DC: The World Bank, The World Wildlife Fund, and The United States Agency for International Development.
- Conflicts of interest have thus arisen in many areas of the world between protected areas and local people. Traditional approaches to park management and enforcement activities have been unable to balance these competing demands. p.ix
- Very careful thought needs to be given at the design stage as to the following question: what are the anticipated linkages between the planned realization of social and economic benefits by the people living outside the park or reserve boundaries and the necessary behavioral response the project seeks to achieve to reduce pressure inside the boundaries. p.x
- All ICDPs must eventually face the test of whether they have strengthened the ability of protected areas to conserve the species and ecosystems the areas were established to protect. It is possible for a project to have successful social and economic development components without being an effective ICDP. p.xi
- ICDPs that constructively address local people-park relationships at carefully selected sites are an essential element in the conservation of biodiversity, and therefore of sustainable development efforts. p.xi
- Growing awareness of the complexity of the links between poverty, development, and the environment has led to a search for ways to link conservation with development, make "sustainable development" work, and make conservation people-oriented. p.2
- Most ICDPs aim to stabilize land use outside protected boundaries and to increase local incomes, in order to reduce the pressure for further exploitation of natural resources in the protected area. p.3
- ICDPs have received considerable attention among conservation organizations, international development agencies, national governments, and private foundations. ICDPs have been funded or implemented by many of these organizations. p.3
- Adequate knowledge of local social, economic, biological, and cultural factors that shape resource-use patterns is an essential pre-requisite to using economic development to change these patterns to more park-friendly activities. p.28
- When appropriate national policies are absent, the ability to sustain even successful projects is doubtful. The larger policy environment was perhaps the most important factor affecting project success or failure. p.28
- The aim is to compensate local people for economic losses caused by the establishment of a protected area; provide substitutes for resources to which access has been denied, such as meat, timber, and grazing land; or provide alternative sources of income through new economic activities. p.30
- Compensation is relatively simple, at least in theory, and could be in cash payments, goods or services. These could be provided in exchange for agreements by local people to relinquish their formal rights of access and to respect the conservation goals of the protected area. Substitutes can be targeted on specific resource uses. For example, if the protected area was formerly used as a source of fuel-wood, woodlots outside the boundaries might provide an adequate substitute. If a traditional park was formerly used to graze livestock, water points (in arid areas) or stall-feeding (in wet areas), for example, could be substituted. p.30
- Projects need to challenge the convenient and widespread--but totally unsupported--assumption that people made better-off by a development project will refrain from illegal exploitation of a nearby park in the absence of the negative incentive provided by more effective penalties. Such an expectation is naive; there is an inescapable and widespread need to strengthen guard patrol and impose penalties on those conducting illegal activities in parks. This is not inconsistent with the ICDP concept when such enforcement activities are integrated with genuine local development efforts and serious attempts to improve local people-park management communications through education campaigns. p.31
- Nature tourism can generate benefits for conservation at several levels: by providing an economic return to the nation, it can justify setting aside large areas of land for conservation; entry fees can generate substantial funds to support management; and tourist expenditures (on lodging, transportation, food, guides, and souvenirs) can be an important source of income for communities nearby, compensating them for a loss of access to traditional resources and giving them an incentive to conserve the wildlife. In general, all spending by visitors--on transportation, food, lodging, or even park entry fees--goes directly to the central treasury or to private corporate interests that have been granted concessions. p. 34
- Even if the vast conservation benefits potentially available from nature tourism could be realized, it is important to remember that only a small minority of protected areas attract significant numbers of visitors. p. 36
- Projects adopting a participatory approach have made important progress in winning the trust and confidence of skeptical local populations and eliciting the participation of community members in project initiated activities. p.47
- Participation can facilitate a more cooperative relationship between protected areas and local people and thus make enforcement more humane and acceptable. p.47
- Agencies need to change from a purely enforcement orientation to one substantially more sympathetic to communities living in and around parks. This will require not only changes in attitude at all agency levels but also completely new skills in such areas as communication, extension, education, and mediation. 51
- For ICDP design and implementation, there is the need for partnerships between different types of organizations--between development and conservation NGOS and between NGOS and government agencies. The need for such partnerships is one of the strongest conclusions to emerge from this study. p.54
- Many of the factors leading to the loss of biodiversity and the degradation of protected natural ecosystems originate far from park boundaries. p.60
- Partnerships provide a basis for effectively addressing the challenge that distinguishes ICDPS from all other conservation and development projects: the need to link socio-economic development with biodiversity conservation. p.63
- Without operational independence (institutions and network of field workers), achieving ICDP goals and sustaining benefits once a project has finished will be difficult. p.64

David Western, "Linking Conservation and Community Aspirations", pp. 499-511.
- Conservation must be embedded in local communities if it is to flourish as a voluntary rather than coercive effort. p.499
- Localized conservation can draw on the deep knowledge, traditions, ethics, and adaptive practices of rural communities intimately linked to the land and nature. p.504
- Development itself can lead to conservation. p.507
- Empowerment, participation, awareness, education--these may be essential ingredients of community based conservation, but they seldom provide the yeast that can raise community members' lives above the material and physical hardships that stand in the way of conservation. p.507
- The end result ultimately must be measures in terms of real conservation improvements, not empowerment, participation, tenurial rights, or any other surrogate measure. p.509

Shirley Strum, "Lessons Learned", pp. 512-523.
- Two things are certain about community-based conservation: It is possible, and it is difficult. p.512
- The involvement of governments in community-based conservation often generates new conflicts, since the interests of governments seldom coincide with community interests. p.514

R. Michael Wright, "Recommendations", pp. 524-535.
- Conservationists should undertake an active search for innovative partnerships that build on the enormous diversity of traditional knowledge and unique conservation solutions. p.525
- Government's most fundamental role in community-based conservation is to establish a civil context that allows free and open participation in the political process by all levels of society. p.527
- Community-based conservation requires unprecedented collaboration--horizontally, often between competing institutions, and vertically, through institutions at different levels of society. p.530
- Because community initiatives are often stimulated by crisis, mediation and conflict resolution skills are particularly relevant. p.530
- Strengthening of institutions should favor pre-existing institutions rather than the creation of new ones. p.531

Marshall Murphee, "The Role of Institutions in Community-Based Conservation", pp. 403-427.
- For communities to act as effective agents of conservation, they must be structured so as to accommodate internal differences for collective goals. p.403
- If the community is to serve as a viable principle of social organization in the contemporary world, it must be institutionalized in a way that allows effective interaction with external institutional actors. p.414
- Community-based conservation schemes can play an important role in strengthening the development of effective institutions of local governance. p.419
- Donor funds also can enhance a community's bargaining position with private entrepreneurs, who also can be a source of capital inputs. p.422

Daniel Bromley, "Economic Dimensions of Community-Based Conservation", pp. 428-447.
- The economic dimension of community-based conservation centers around the search for new institutional arrangements that will align the interests of local people with the interests of non-local--and often distant--individuals and groups seeking sustainable management of particular ecosystems. p.429
- Community-based conservation is an effort to assign rights and duties to local communities so that they behave in certain ways with respect to particular biological resources. The rights come in terms of the secure expectation that local management in the interest of biological conservation will be rewarded in some way. The duties come in terms of the obligations that local groups agree to undertake in order to reap the benefits of biological conservation. p.433

Blackwell, J., Goodwillie, R., and Webb, R. (1991) Environment and Development in Africa: Selected Case Studies, Washington, DC: The World Bank.
- Success can be a powerful educational tool to ensure continuing adherence to sound environmental practices in the study area as well as encouragement of such practices elsewhere.57
- Projects that meet the following conditions are likely to succeed environmentally: (1) They take a broad, long-term, and all embracing view of the development process. (2) They use technology that is appropriate, affordable, understandable, and serviceable. (3) They have the confidence and support of the group whom they aim to help. In other words, they have a successful 'internalization' strategy. (4) The controlling agencies can examine in a relatively disinterested manner the inputs, methods, and technology adopted in the project. 114
- Failure occurs when donors have a vested interest in the method of development and in the materials use (types of chemicals, machinery, etc.). 114
- Many of the keys to environmental successes or failures are, in fact, identical to the factors that control the general success or failure of any project. 114

McNeely, J., Miller, K., Reid, W., and Mittermeier, R. (1990) Conserving the World Biological Diversity, Washington, DC: IUCN, WRI, WWF, and The World Bank.
- Universities, research institutions, and non-governmental organizations need to be strengthened so that they can help governments assess their biological resources.
- New partners in conservation need to be found, involving all ministries, departments and private institutions that are directly dependent on biological resources. 15
- National parks have boundaries. By their very nature, as being legally established units of land management, national parks have limits on the ground, often marked by fences or other physical manifestations of authority. Yet nature knows no boundaries, and recent advances in conservation biology are showing that national parks are usually too small to effectively conserve the large mammals, birds of prey, or trees they are designed to preserve. 49
- In most countries, those responsible for managing wildlife and protected areas are poorly paid, have insufficient opportunities for advancement, lack specialized training, and have low prestige. 52
- In order to build sustainable relationships between rural people and their resources, local communities must be provided with the tools with which they can build their own conservation action. 105
- Conservation needs to pervade all rural based activities; it is not something that happens only in national parks and other protected areas. Therefore, economic incentives aimed at encouraging rural people to conserve biological resources outside of protected areas can be very cost effective in terms of conservation achievement. While such incentives may not bring funding to the conservation agency, they may enable the agency to be more effective in managing protected areas. 118
- Tourism can bring numerous socio-economic benefits to a country in terms of creating local employment, stimulating local economies, generating foreign exchange, stimulating improvements to local transportation infrastructure, and creating recreational facilities. 129
- Local support for protecting natural areas must be increased through such measures as education, revenue sharing, participation in decisions, complementary development schemes adjacent to protected areas, and, where compatible with conservation, access to resources. 132
- Building community involvement in managing protected areas requires a combination of incentives and disincentives, economic benefits and law enforcement, education and awareness, employment in the protected areas and employment opportunities outside, and enhanced land tenure and control of new immigration. The key is to find a balance among the competing demands, and this will usually require a site-specific solution.
- Whenever possible, enforcement should be administered by local people.

Schramm, G., and Warford, J. (eds.) (1989) Environmental Management and Economic Development, Washington, DC: The World Bank.
"Environmental Management and Economic Policy in Developing Countries", J.J.W., pp. 7-22
- The success of policy interventions depends heavily on behavioral issues and on the prospects for changing behavior. 14
- Coordination and control of natural resource use in order to mitigate its external effects--in particular to impose incentives that effect several sectors--may require the creation of agencies with wide-ranging authority over certain aspects of the operations of functional ministries in a particular region. 19

"Environmental and Natural resource Accounting", Sala El Serafy and Ernst Lutz, pp. 23-38
- True income is sustainable income. 24

"Deforestation in Brazil's Amazon Region", Dennis Mahar, pp. 87-116
- The main proximate causes of tropical deforestation worldwide are small-scale agriculture, commercial logging, fuel-wood gathering, and cattle raising. The underlying causes, however, include poverty, unequal land distribution, low agricultural productivity, rapid population growth, and various public services. 87

"Managing the Supply of and the Demand for Fuel-wood in Africa", Jane Armitage and Gunter Schramm, pp. 139-171
- Outside of the limited areas protected as national parks or forest reserves, uncontrolled exploitation of remaining forest resources is commonplace in most countries. 139

"Multilevel Resource Analysis and Management: The Case of Watersheds", John Dixon, pp. 185-200
- The government may need to provide incentives to promote inter-ministerial cooperation in order to facilitate project implementation. 198

Munasinghe, M., and McNeely, J. (eds.) (1994) Protected Area Economics and Policy: Linking Conservation and Sustainable Development, Washington, DC: The World Bank.
"An Introduction to Protected Area Economics and Policy, M.M. and J.M., pp. 1-11
- In purely economic terms, the production of a good is economically justified when the total benefits exceed the total cost; this must include the so-called external costs of dealing with pollution and environmental degradation. 2
- The further economic development proceeds, and the more widespread the market system becomes, the greater will be the need for governments to establish protected areas as part of the official development policy. 3
- As economies develop further and reach a mature stage, political support for protection of natural areas increases, but by this time much biodiversity may have been lost. 3

"Economic and Policy Issues in Natural Habitats and Protected Areas", M.M., 15-49
- There is a growing body of empirical evidence showing that an insignificant overlap exists between groups who benefit most from the loss of natural habitats and those who bear the cost. 20
- Transfer of capital, knowledge, and technology from the developed to the developing nations are essential to enable the developing countries to share in the effort of protecting the "global commons". 25
- Hostile relations between park personnel and local communities have become substantially more amicable as a result of project personnel performing a mediation role. 27

"Making Investment (Aid) Work to Develop Institutionally Sustainable Programs", Simon Metcalfe, pp. 91-97
- Developing countries can be deeply threatened by having to rely on finance, science, project management, and supervision from outside the country. 94
- A development strategy that begins with the need to develop the capacity of local agencies of a country to implement its own projects and programs is investing in institutional sustainability.

"The Economics of Global Eco-Tourism", F.L. Filion, J.P. Foley, A.J. Jacquemot, pp. 235-252
- Depending on the region, eco-tourism appears to account for some 40-60 percent of international tourism. 239

"Sustainable Tourism Development", K. Lawrence, pp. 263-272
- For tourism development to be truly sustainable, it must be based upon environmental and social attributes. 264

"Parks Tourism in Nepal: Reconciling the social and economic opportunities with the ecological and cultural threats", M.P. Wells, pp. 319-331
- Powerful arguments for conservation can be developed when the economic benefits from protected areas exceed the costs, as appears to be the case in Nepal. However, this does not guarantee the survival of protected area networks. 320

"The Economic Feasibility and Ecological Sustainability of the Bonaire Marine park, Dutch Antilles", J.C. Post, pp. 333-338
- Ideally, every protected area should become ecologically sustainable and economically feasible for the community and for the individual so that everybody complies voluntarily with the regulations pertaining to the protection of the protected area. 334

Braatz, S., Davis, G., Shen, S., and Colin, R. (1992) Conserving Biological Diversity: A Strategy for Protected Areas in the Asia-Pacific Region, Washington, DC: The World Bank.
- Assessing biodiversity in relation to past and present land and resource use offers an opportunity for maintaining and restoring biological diversity in threatened areas. Consequently, special efforts must be made to understand the history of human impacts on the distribution of species, habitats, and ecosystems, notably the different ways in which people value, use, manage, and affect biodiversity. 26