LOGAN: LAWS OF LEARNING (Basic Processes) January 2004 SPATIAL LEARNING: Excitation Current Contingency Interdependent Variables Contents Paradigmatic/Natural/Asocial/Emotionally-Positive/Interdependent-Operation Principle SECC<>1:00. Spatial Learning SB****aSA SECC<>1:10. Correction vs Non-Correction SB****aae SECC<>1:20. Performance in Radial Maze SB****aHr SECC<>2:00. Nature of Reinforcement in Spatial Lrng SB****aSK SECC<>2:10. Relative Effectiveness of Reinforcers SB****asK SECC<>2:20. Conditional Outcome Choice Behavior SB****gac Systematic Analyses of Spatial Learning SB****aSZ SECC<>3:00. Control Conditions for Spatial Learning SB****aSc SECC<>4:00. Miscellaneous Spatial Learning Phenomena SB****aSx Miscellaneous Analyses of Spatial Learning SB****aSz Paradigmatic/Natural/Asocial/Emotionally-Neutral/Interdependent-Operation SECC<>5:00. Spatial Performance as-f (N/trials) SB****bSR Systematic Analyses of Spatial Acquisition SB****bzA Paradigmatic/Natural/Asocial/Emotionally-Negative/Interdependent-Operation SECC<>8:00. Effect of Punishment in Spatial Learning SB****cSp Relevant uncoded root-abstracts Relevant(?) unabstracted/uncoded literature Principle SECC<>1:00. Spatial Learning SB****aSA . Organisms acquire motor R to spatial location of reinforcement RFLH Acq localization of sound re location of food w/stim 2 ears Bar,AG'15- RMLH Acq w/free-choice slightly > forced errorless trng - - - - Car,H.'19+ HMLO Acq facil w/manual guidance, esp w/difficult maze - - - - - Lud,KE'23- RM - 14-unit mult-T-maze best, w/errors as best R-measure - - - Tol,EC'27+ RMPH W/R=approach lite, errors w/same > w/diff maze pattern - - Mai,NR'30- Attrib above to decr attn to cue lite w/constant sit Mai,NR'30- ATO- Meas reliability of finger maze lrng ability - - - - - - - Spe,KW'32- Split-half correl 2 mazes, most valid and N/trials least Spe,KW'32- HMLO Maze lrng facil if require to repeat each error B4 correctn Kel,WN'35+ RTLH Re acq shorter path, N/tr decr-f(ratio of diff lengths) - - Gri,GR'42- Derive above result from exponential goal gradient of rf Gri,GR'42- RMPH W/reinf midway in 20-choice pt runway, bi-directional genz Jen,WO'43- RMPH Bi-directional genz gradient re repeat R incr-f(Amt(Reinf)) Jen,WO'43- RMLH Spatial lrng w/correct R = continue forward at choice pt - Fos,FR'57+ RTPx Choice H2O > ESB incr-f(time since ESB), incr-f(H2O dep) - Deu,JA'64e RWLO Rapid acq swim to invisible under-H2O platform in H2O tank Mor,RG'81- Above w/platform in fixed location, sim to visible one Mor,RG'81- Infer lrng spatial locatn re pos transfer to new starts Mor,RG'81- SECC<>1:10. Correction vs Non-Correction SB****aae RMLO Acq w/culs requiring retrace >continue on back to true path May,LL'31- RTLH Acq/reversal w/correction > noncorrection - - - - - - - - - Hul,CL'38+ RTLH Non-correction < correction, w/no effect of length of path Sew,JP'43- RTLH Noncorrection > correction, not-f(lengths of paths) - - - - Sew,JP'43- RTLH Acq w/noncorrection > correction - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hil,WF'62e RTC Title: Noncorrect/nonreward w/P(reinf) - - - - - - - - - - Cla,KN'65- RTxH Noncorrection > correction in acq w/no effect on extn - - - Tow,EM'66+ SECC<>1:20. Performance in Radial Maze SB****aHr RMLH Acq 4-path radial path-elim prob, w/1st choice free/forced Cra,CW'42- No stereotyped pattern path elim, w/incr VTE over trng Cra,CW'42- RMPH Speed of correct > error choice w/5-unit mult-path elim - - Lac,SJ'65- Maint variability seq of paths even during extended trng Lac,SJ'65- RMPH Acq path-elim beh: choose diff path on 3 successive trials Lac,SJ'66- Maint accuracy w/variability of sequence of choices Lac,SJ'66- DRPH Indiv diff in search re 4-GB radial maze, w/stereotypy - - Fab,C.'75- RM Title: Spatial memory and radial-arm perf - - - - - - - - Olt,DS'77e win-shift (choose other arms) > win-stay (same arms) Gaf,EA'80+ RRP1 After 2 forced choices of 4 arms, choose new-open arms Gaf,EA;81+ if forced choices were nonreinf > reinf w/food/H2O - Gaf,EA'81+ After 2 forced reinf choices of 4 arms, acq Gaf,EA'81+ Attrib above to spon altern tend + assn vs foraging Gaf,EA'81+ RRPH After forced choices of 4 random arms in 8-arm maze, Rob,WA'81+ perf decr w/60-sec > 0-sec ITI B4 5th choice - - - - - - Rob,WA'81+ Attrib above to proactive interfer from earlier trials Rob,WA'81+ RRPH N/errors w/24 > 12-arm radial maze, but > chance perf - - - Bur,O.'82+ N/errors in radial maze incr w/2nd tr immed after 1st Bur,O.'82+ RMPH Interp radial maze perf re geomagnetic cues - - - - - - - - Cha,MD'82- RRPH 4-hr delay B4 5th choice decr perf w/8-arm radial maze - - Mar,E.'83e CCPH W/4 places of reinf, avoid return w/choose far-apart places Pou,B.'83e RRPH Hi perf 2-hr after 4-forced choices in 8-arm radial maze - Mak,WS'84e Above perf w/w/out maze rotation B4 test Mak,WS'84e SRPH Perf in open-arm > enclosed 8-arm radial maze - - - - - - - Pic,RM'84+ Delay B4 5th choice decr perf w/enclosed > open arm maze Pic,RM'84+ RRPO W/8-arm radial H2O maze w/time on safe platforms as reinf, Bol,JJ'85e acq near 100% perf w/15-sec delay between choices - - - Bol,JJ'85e Above perf decr-f(2.5/5/10/20-min delay between choices) Bol,JJ'85e RNLH No effect of decr brain norepinephrine re radial maze perf Chr,JJ'85e PMLH Re radial-R, good spatial memory w/forgetting w/6-min delay Rob,WA'85+ Re radial-R, acq ordered R re diff Amt(Reinf) in 4 arms Rob,WA'85+ RRP1 W/8-arm radial maze, H2O dep w/H2O reinf > food dep/reinf - Dal,RH'86+ Re above, distance between choices w/H2O < food dep Dal,RH'86+ RRPH Best recall last of 5 visited arms w/short delay B4 test - Bol,JJ'88+ Best recall first of 5 visited arms w/long delay B4 test Bol,JJ'88+ RRLH Perf 8-arm radial maze w/odor or extramaze visual cues - - Duh,JD'88- Above perf decr-f(10/60/480-sec delay between selections Duh,JD'88- Re above, 3-mo > 24-mo old O Duh,JD'88- RMCH Radial-arm maze perf w/short > long arms - - - - - - - - - Bro,MF'90- Re above, pref short > long arms but no diff in retentn Bro,MF'90- RRPH Radial perf incr-f(practice) but strategy is-f(age) - - - - Cap,A.'90e RRPH Radial-maze perf sim w/food dep, w/w/out food reinf - - - - Tim,W.'90+ P Title: Perf in radial-arm-maze analog - - - - - - - - - - Zen,TR'90e R Title: Chunking by proximal arm cues - - - - - - - - - - - Coh,JS'93e RRPO Observe nonrandom visiting in radial maze w/out dep/reinf - Wil,DM'93e RRPH W/radial maze, trng w/internal or external cues blocks Mil,DJ'94- acq re external or internal cues w/compound trng - - - - Mil,DJ'94- RRPH Decr perf w/transposition of texture cues B4 5th choice - - Vol,US'98+ Above decr >rotatn/removal of cues; infer spatial config Vol,US'98+ SECC<>2:00. Nature of Reinforcement in Spatial Lrng SB****aSK FAL: "Reinforcement is in the 'eyes' of the beholder!" hMLO Bell-right > bell-wrong w/6-10-yr old boys/girls - - - - - Hol,HB'43- RTLH Acq w/reinf = nonnutritive sacc solutn, correl w/lick rate She,FD'50+ S Title: Temperature change as reinf - - - - - - - - - - - - Cal,WE'51+ RTLH Acq pref for milk vs saline injected directly into stomach Mil,NE'52+ Above acq slower than if drink milk by mouth Mil,NE'52+ RMLO Some evidence of lrng w/lite motiv, dark reinf - - - - - - Cal,WE'53+ RTLO W/sodium dep, acq w/reinf = sub-taste-thresh saline - - - - Tho,CW'53+ Interp: Reinf w/need decr w/out sensory effects Tho,CW'53+ RTL- Acq w/reinf = decr in lite inten, not w/incr - - - - - - - Gre,N.'55- RTLS Devel temp pref for alternative w/sex beh w/out ejaculation Kag,J.'55- SMLO Some evidence of lrng for decr in hi temperature - - - - - Cal,WE'56e xTLG W/food dep, acq w/reinf=intravenus glucose w/rabbit not dog Cha,RM'56- RMPH Acq pref re GB w/varied > fixed location of food reinf - - Hav,J.'56- CNPO Oscillate back-forth between arms to turn ESB on then off - Rob,WW'58- Above ESB posterior hypothal, w/R=on decr w/incr inten Rob,WW'58- RML Title: Acq as-f(consummatory time) - - - - - - - - - - - - Bar,GA'59- RTLH Pre-expose to sweet H2O w/hunger facil acq w/sweet H2O rf - Wet,RJ'59- Above only w/hunger during T-maze acq, not w/satiation Wet,RJ'59- RTPO Acq turn pref --> lite reinf, immed > delayed re choice pt Lev,H.'60+ OTPO Lrng w/chicks w/reinf = prior imprinted object - - - - - - Cam,BA'61+ rSPO Pref familiar > unfamiliar animals, cage-mates > adults - - Tol,CW'61- RTPH Pref inaccessible food vs wood pellets only w/food dep - - Pla,JR'62+ RxxO Acq/reversal T-maze w/septal ESB reinf, correl w/alley/bar Spe,NE'62- xMPO W/rat/chick/fish, prefer arm that changes motor acty - - - Ang,WF'63e CYLO W/hypothal ESB, acq R leading to predatory attack on rat - Rob,WW'64+ Note: Above hypothal ESB-->attack during eating Rob,WW'64+ OYLH W/chick, reinf if peck nutrient, not peck or food-in-crop - Ste,BM'65+ RGPT Acq spatial pref for .8% NaCl > H2O reinf - - - - - - - - - Ste,EM'65- OMLO W/sheep, lrng w/reinf = familiar in/animate objects - - - - Cai,RB'66- RSPO Acq spatial R-->mouse vs rat pup w/O that kills mice - - - Mye,JS'66+ Note: Rats that do not kill mice pref rat pup vs mouse Mye,JS'66+ RMPO W/reinf = removal, prefer hand > box removal if prehandled Boi,R.'67e FTLO Acq only w/reinf = S that elicits aggressive display - - - Bol,RJ'77- SECC<>2:10. Relative Effectiveness of Reinforcers SB****asK RMLx Concl food/sex approx equal as incentives for lrng w/males Sto,CP'27+ RTLH W/4cc sucrose vs water reinf--Hungry > satiated - - - - - - Smi,M.'57+ W/.1cc sucrose vs water reinf--Hungry = satiated Smi,M.'57+ Concl: Sucrose reinf-->need reductn + sensory satisfactn Smi,M.'57+ RNPH Pref lateral hypothal ESB vs food w/up to 240-hr food dep - Spi,G.'65- Note: Pref food vs ESB at other loci w/food dep > 24-hr Spi,G.'65- SECC<>2:20. Conditional Outcome Choice Behavior SB****gac Choice w/outcome of one alternative is-f(performance) RTPH Concl conditional-outcome alternative = matched reinf - - - Log,FA'62- Above cond-outcome = neg-correl-reinf/R-diff/S-discrim Log,FA'62- MVPH Temp pref for conditional (color discrim) outcome by 1/6 O Gre,KF'65+ PVPH W/concur-VI-VI chain, pref R-->matched PRF vs R-->DRH/DRL Fan,E.'68- Systematic Analyses of Spatial Learning SB****aSZ RfL- Favors propriocep basis of maze lrng - - - - - - - - - - - Wat,JB'07- RMLH Lrng not-f(frequency/recency), is-f(visceral factors) - - - Pet,J.'17- RfM- Favors centrally organized mech as basis for maze lrng - - Las,KS'26+ RML- Reject freq/recency/chain-motor notion - - - - - - - - - - Gen,JA'28- Rf - Kinesthetic chain not suff; requires 'genz' by rat - - - - Gen,JA'29- RfM- Maze habit is gen directn+successn of turn indep of R-fdbk Las,KS'29+ RMLH Maze lrng not R to series of S; is-f(knowledge/motiv/reward Tol,EC'30- RFLH Disting lrng re appropriate beh in sit vs skill re perf - - Yos,JG'32- RMLH Hypo: Acq based on neg adaptation of errors, offset w/reinf Den,W.'34+ XMLX Ident 93 factors of which maze lrng is a function - - - - - Bue,JA'35- From above, concl maze too complex for anal of indiv beh Bue,JA'35- XMLX Anal of maze lrng re goal-gradient hypo inadequate re error Bue,JA'38- Rxxx Lo correl maze lrng w/classcond run w/Pair(lite/shock) - - Mot,FA'40- RMLH Lrng is-f(dropping out error (eg forward-going) factors) - Whe,RJ'41- RTLH Parameters of math model to fit CRF-->poor fit w/75-25% rf Fey,C.'61- OCPH Bees return to food source re image of environ at source - Car,BA'82+ HMLO Concl: Acq = picturelike cog map re locate target/shortcut Lev,M.'82e SECC<>3:00. Control Conditions for Spatial Learning SB****aSc RMLH Between-S variability is-f(difficulty), affects stat anal - Las,KS'17- XML Title: Reliability of the maze - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Car,HA'26- RMPH Low reliability w/retest after interval w/out practice - - Her,WT'30- SMLH Acq not-f presence of food (milk) at goal during run - - - Was,MF'30e RMLH Low reliability of mult-T maze w/skewed distrib of scores - Lee,R.'32- RMLH Open maze > closed w/normal O, reverse for blind - - - - - Tsa,YC'34- Cortical blinding more detrimental than peripheral Tsa,YC'34- RM Title: Maze reliability - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Mau,S.'35+ RMLH Title: Visual cortex in maze lrng - - - - - - - - - - - - Tsa,YC'35- TMLH Estab need to control odor trail cues in maze lrng - - - - Dur,H.'64- SECC<>4:00. Miscellaneous Spatial Learning Phenomena SB****aSx HMLO Acq w/part method (lrng 1/4th B4 adding next 1/4th) > whole Bar,JW'21- RMLH Guidance (lead on leash) facil acq but < unguided trial - - Alo,AS'26- Late > early guidance, incr-f(N/trials w/guidance) Alo,AS'26- RMLH W/uniform pattern in linear maze, acq longer > shorter - - War,CJ'29+ RMLH Pref pentagon > triangle maze pattern w/= lengths - - - - - Yos,JG'29- RMLH W/same pattern, lrng elevated > alley maze, w/less explor - Mil,WR'30- RMLH Abrupt = gradual w/drawal of guidance (blocks in culs) - - Tsa,LS'30- X+Lx Cat/pigeon fail lrng problem requiring "directional sense" Gun,RH'31- RMLH Whole > any part meth of lrng w/complex maze re total acq - Han,EM'31- HMLH Acq maze pattern w/constant = varied size - - - - - - - - - Lee,R.'32+ rMLO Early guidance (culs blocked) < equal trng w/out guidance - Bun,ME'33+ Early guidance facil acq is-f delay after guide B4 trng Bun,ME'33+ RMLH Whole lrng > lrng parts B4 combining into whole - - - - - - Han,EM'33- RMLH Acq w/blind O decr if frequently interchange maze parts - - Hon,CH'33- Attrib lrng to cog spatial relations, not kinesthesis Hon,CH'33- OMLO Acq maze returning to nest > leaving; attrib to motiv - - - Sch,TC'33- HMLO Rate of elim error in stylus maze incr-f(time spent in cul) Pet,HN'35+ HMLO W/same sequence L/R turns, lrng decr w/varied length/shape Wol,DL'35- RMLH Daily forced exercise decr errors, not speed re maze perf - Gra,WL'37- xML- W/rats/humans, no consistent pref for path w/fewest turns - Wat,RH'37- RMxx Rate acq 8-unit maze correl w/sexual/maternal perf - - - - Bea,FA'39- HMLO Acq decr-f(practice speed re N/tr, incr-f re total time) - Sha,WL'39- RMLH Acq w/inclined > horizontal maze w/same pattern - - - - - - VVo,RB'39+ oMLH W/chicks, N/trials-to-crit incr-f(N/choice points) - - - - War,CJ'41+ Re above: Difficulty per unit decr-f(N/choice points) War,CJ'41+ RTPH Re Lat(R), no conflict w/both arms reinf vs only one avail Wil,SB'43- RTPS W/H2O maze, variability choice-pt beh not-f(pre-tr shock) - Goo,RW'52e RNL- Small neg effect of low-freq ESB during run on maze acq - - Gen,JA'54+ RLPH W/equal Amt(reinf), choice of more freq R incr-f(dep) - - - Ram,CK'54- SML- Rotating circular maze at 30 rpm incr time/errors - - - - - Cal,WE'55+ SML- Incline maze to 21 degrees incr time/errors - - - - - - - - Cal,WE'55+ TML- Incr in time/errors w/maze tilted at 21 degrees - - - - - - Cal,WE'55+ WTL- Faster lrng at nite than morning, w/out diurnal cues - - - Arb,J.'57- RACH Can avoid cul w/barrier by echolocation if blind, not deaf Ril,DA'57+ HCPO Acq L/R bias w/out awareness during pseudo-discrim task - - Gid,NS'59+ RVLH Acq position R facil if see food/lite delivered after error Bad,AD'60- RTLH Acq not-f(effort re angle of maze incline) - - - - - - - - Jen,GD'60- RMLH Maze perf is-f(experimenter) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ash,S.'65- RTPH W/insoluble T-maze, devel persistent motor, not place, hypo Bla,M.'71- RMPH W/alley-->maze, frustrative nonrf in alley decr maze perf - Woo,PE'72e RCLH W/mult food sources in several clusters-->cluster visits - Sch,F.'90e Acq of above "chunking" w/males > females Sch,F.'90e Above esp w/wide-angle paths, w/neglect of parallel arms Sch,F.'90e Miscellaneous Analyses of Spatial Learning SB****aSz RMLH Concl: Combination time/error data best re lrng curve - - - Hic,VC'11- xMLx W/rat/human, guidance w/barrier in culs-->confusn w/removal Koc,HL'23- RMLH Lrng involves 2 tasks: run-->reward, then skill - - - - - - Yos,JG'29- RMLH Acq w/start point away = toward goal, w/varied starts/GB - Bri,RL'33- Interp above re dynamic field theory vs direction orient Bri,RL'33- RMLH Interp perf of blind O as cerebral control vs sensory Ss - Hon,CH'33- RMPH Attrib maze perf to altern tend > centrifugal swing - - - - Mar,C.'42+ SRPH Concl: Non-egocentric cues facil perf/STM re radial maze Pic,RM'84+ SECC<>5:00. Spatial Performance as-f (N/trials) SB****bSR RMLH W/16-unit elevated maze, both VTE/errors decr-f(N/tr) - - - Jac,LL'43- RTLH Acq facil by extra forced tr to nonreinf R - - - - - - - - Den,MR'51+ RTPH W/reinf both arms, devel pref for arm less often reinf - - Den,MR'57- R+R- Init pref re place > R equalized w/extended trng - - - - - Bla,M.'66e RTLH W/4 forced + 1 free trial/block, acq incr-f(% forced neg) - Uhl,CN'66- MCLH 1-tr lrng of food location w/untrained marmosets - - - - - Men,EW'82+ Systematic Analyses of Spatial Acquisition SB****bzA RMRH Fewer errors/retracing on 1st trial than expected by chance Den,W.'32+ RMLH Attrib non-random initial beh to orient re direction cue - Den,W.'32e RMLX Rate of lrng incr-f(amt to-be-lrnd) re slopes of curves - - Hun,WS'56- RMLT Concl: P(R) incr-f(reinf) w/no change w/nonreinf trials - - Bro,AL'65- Principle: SECC<>8:00. Effect of Punishment in Spatial Learning SB****cSp Spatial Learning facilitated by punishing errors RMLH Elim error facil w/shock punish - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Kuo,ZY'22- RMLH Pun errors facil acq and facil acq 2nd maze w/out pun - - - Ni.,CF'23- HML- Electric shock punish for errors facil maze lrng - - - - - Bun,ME'28- RMLH Shock pun for errors incr acq/retention - - - - - - - - - - Val,R.'30- RMLH Acq/retentn w/punish errors >immed reinf for each correct R Dor,RM'32+ HMLO Shock pun for errors during acq facil acq/1-wk retention - Cra,LW'34+ RTPH W/equal reinf/pun, devel fixated pref, esp w/jump R - - - - Dia,S.'34- RMLH Shock pun for errors during acq facil acq/30-d retention - Ni.,CF'34- HMLO Acq facil w/shock errors, esp if begin after some trng - - Bun,ME'35- HMLO Acq w/bell-right > w/bell-wrong - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hul,WS.35+ HMLO Partial pun re errors facil punchboard maze lrng - - - - - Gil,RW'37- HMLO Light, not moderate shock-right facil lrng - - - - - - - - Gur,H.'38- RMPH After lrng long path, then take short path, sh in GB-->long Bro,WL'39- HMLO Elim shocked > non-shocked errors - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ber,JK'41+ RMCH No effect of shock B4 choice re 1st/2nd lrnd R of 4 - - - - Kle,RW'42- HMLO Elim blinds w/shock-wrong > shock-right - - - - - - - - - - Jon,FM'45+ RMPH After 1 shock in mid-maze, perf decr B4, not after shock pt Bro,WL'50- RMLH Shock added to intra-maze delay decr perf B4, not after sh Bro,WL'50+ RTPH After trng, shock B4 choice pt incr P(turn to innate pref) Aeb,H.'52- HMLO W/temporal maze, shock-both > shock right/wrong > no shock Fre,CM'55+ RTPH W/delayed reinf re both Rs, pref immed > delayed pun in GB Kna,RK'59e If pun signaled, pref immed or delayed signal-shock Kna,RK'59e RTRH After devel pref re equal paths to food, maint pref w/shock Loh,TF'59- HMLO Shock-right > wrong w/lo-inten pun, reverse w/hi - - - - - Fel,SM'61- RTLT No effect of consum-R (lick) pun on acq, but decr reversal Kos,CE'65+ Relevant uncoded root-abstracts RSPU Re prisoner's dilemma game w/2 adjacent T-mazes, Gar,RM'84e perf re indiv payoff vs coop - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Gar,RM'84e Relevant(?) unabstracted/uncoded literature xCL Title: Trial and error in mammals - - - - - - - - - - - - Ham,GV'11- RML Title: Norms of mastery in maze lrng - - - - - - - - - - - War,CJ'26- RML Title: Reliability of maze lrng - - - - - - - - - - - - - New,SH'36- HM Title: 1-error/trial meth of maze lrng - - - - - - - - - - Sco,TC'38- hM Title: Stages in child maze lrng - - - - - - - - - - - - - Yos,JG'45+ RT Title: Cog lrng w/out competition - - - - - - - - - - - - MCo,K.'49+ RN Title: Mass action effects in lrng - - - - - - - - - - - - Rol,AR'55- RM Title: Loci of interference in maze - - - - - - - - - - - Smi,AH'56- RM Title: Beh supports for transfer - - - - - - - - - - - - - Has,GM'57- RT Title: Delayed shock in T-maze - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Per,CC'59e R A Title: Conflict and temporal integration - - - - - - - - - Ren,KE'64- Title: Spatial P-lrng in WGTA - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Val,FP'71- R Title: Maze patrolling w/w/out food reinf - - - - - - - - Fit,RE'85e RMP Title: Poison avoid and patch selection - - - - - - - - - Mel,T.'85+ RT Title: 1-trial R choice - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Pfi,BE'87+ rN Title: Temporal demands in place-lrng - - - - - - - - - - Rud,JW'88+ Title: R-Reinf conting and spatial OpR - - - - - - - - - - Gal,G.'89+