Peet, R. (1991) Global Capitalism: Theories of Societal Development, New York: Routledge.

• Even in Marxism, which claims to be a science of all human existence, there is a need to well on certain aspects of the whole life experience. 1
• Economic development in capitalist societies is conventionally measured as the size and rate of growth of the gross domestic product - that is the volume of the 'total final output of goods and services produced by an economy' (WB, 1989:291). 3-4
• the geographic distribution of income across societies is more uneven than the most inegalitarian class structure in any one society. 6
• Dependency theory argues, on a neo-Marxist basis, that contact with the Europeans may indeed bring 'modern' elements to the societies of the Third World, but has also connected them to an exploitative social order. 10
• Marxism has a dialectical understanding of history, in which change stems from contradictions between human groups and between society and the natural world. 10
• ideology is a partial or biased account directly or indirectly constructed on behalf of a certain class, national or ethnic interest. 18
• Drawing explicitly on biology, Parsons (1966:2) derives a general paradigm which analysis any system in terms of four functional categories: (1) the maintenance of the highest 'governing' or controlling patterns of the system; (2) the internal integration of the system; (3) its orientation to the attainment of goals; (4) its more generalized adaptation to the broad conditions of the environment. 22
• modernization theory is interested in elaborating the differences between traditional and modern societies in terms of their positions on various indices of modernity or development, and to the extent to which they approximate the model of modern industrial society. Modernization theory asks: what impedes advance and what are the conditions and mechanisms of social transition, from traditional to modern? 26
• (Hoselitz, 1960:60) 'An economically highly advanced society...is characterized by a complex division of social labor, a relatively open social structure in which caste barriers are absent and class barriers are surmountable, in which social roles and gains from economic activity are distributed essentially on the basis of achievement, and in which, therefore, innovation, the search for an exploitation of profitable market situations, and the ruthless pursuit of self-interest without regard for the welfare of others is fully sanctioned. 29-30
• the main problem for a theory of economic growth is to determine the mechanisms by which the social structure of an underdeveloped country can be modernized - that is, altered to take on the features of an economically advanced country. 30
• Modernization 'is not simply an increase in a set of indices. It involves profound changes in individual and group behavior' (Soja, 1968:4). 36
• the ideas, customs, individual qualities of the members of society develop ad change under the impact of the social relations of production. (Szentes, 1976:71) 40
• dependency theory was a reaction against the failure of earlier theories to adequately explain economic backwardness in Latin America, or to offer a convincing model of the future development process. 43
• In conventional economic analysis, the theory of comparative advantage argues that the exchange of the center countries' industrial goods for peripheral primary goods is to all countries' advantage. 44
• import substitution strategy (i.e. replacing industrial imports with domestic production under tariff protection) 44
• The basic hypothesis of the dependency school is that development and underdevelopment are interdependent structures within the global economic system. 45
• center and periphery become increasingly polarized as capitalism develops the one and underdevelops the other in a single historical process. 47
• underdevelopment in the periphery result from the loss of surplus which is expropriated for investment in the center (Frank 1969b:3-14).
• 'Placing labor at the heart of the study of modern world history can unite the classical Marxist position of political praxis aimed at the working class, with the global dynamics of class struggle in a world social system. In that unity lies the best hope for peace and a more human world order'. (Berquist, 1984:17). 54
• For Marx, the social relations people enter into for their existence determine the possibility and direction of productive development. Social relations are therefore Marxism's most essential analytical category. 59
• For Marx the most essential aspect of social relations is control over productive forces and resources. 59
• Societies are exploitative when uncompensated surplus labor, or its products, are taken from the direct producers. 61
• Crisis in material development sharpen and intensify ongoing class struggles, given the possibility for broad social change, including political and ideological transformation. This happens only when the productive possibilities of the old society near exhaustion. 63
• 'that economic relations, centrally those between owners and direct producers, are always determinant (in the last instance) with respect to the levels or 'instances' in a society, and with respect to the configuration of society as a whole, but...this determination by the economic structure takes the rather indirect form of assigning to the other, non-economic levels, their place in a hierarchy of dominance with respect to one another, and the kind of articulation between them. (Benton, 1986:72). 66
• the various aspects of social existence are realigned following the significant change in the social relations of production. 66
• Domination entails polarized development of the world's productive forces, fast development in the dominant countries and slow in the dominated, and thus the expanded reproduction of economic inequalities. This polarized development essentially results from the initial development of machine production in the industrialized countries... 68
• Capitalism gains ascendancy to transform and destroy the old relations of production, and then assimilates them. 70
• An adequate theory of societal development must attend to human actions and their contexts, but it must pay special attention to the structural conditions which limit, direct and divert transformative activity. 104
• Capitalism, therefore, was not some prior intention towards which all history tends. It came about through the dissolution of previous societies and the recombination of their elements on new forms. 107
• the new capitalist social organization came from a process of disintegration, reassembling, and the formation of new elements which was largely 'internal' or localized, albeit in the context of rapidly changing global conditions. Capitalism is feudalism's errant offspring. 113
• [Clive Thomas, 1974] The crucial features are dynamic divergence between domestic resources and domestic demand and between demand and mass needs. Material development, he says, means initiating economic processes which overcome these divergences; as they are rooted I basic structures a revolutionary break with the past has to occur. ... Immediately production should be reoriented to achieve self-sufficiency in food and provide crucial industrial raw materials, with exports as subordinate objective. ... The transformation of agriculture, however, entails: increasing the size of farming and marketing units; using production techniques which are capital- and skill- intensive; using other modernized inputs to transform productivity; eventually transferring labor to agriculture to other rural and urban activities; and, most significantly, building political and social relations which eliminate exploitation in the rural economy but preserve voluntarism and are based in democratic decision making. 166
• For Thomas, a country incapable of using its own resources to meet its basic requirements remains forever underdeveloped (Thomas, 1974:225). ... [Thomas' model] entails popular control of the production process, but also the planning of consumption to match the possibilities of local production. It involves a transformation in class and gender and in spatial relations towards complete equality. It means excruciatingly hard work for at least a generation before material needs can be fully met. But most importantly it means democracy in all aspects of social and economic life. It is a process not to be supported lightly but only to be undertaken by a people united in their opposition to the structures that now prevail and determined to make entirely new forms of life in the future. 168
• Marxism emphasizes the collective character of human reproduction, asks of any society how is reproduction organized and what relations people engage in for the reproduction of their kind. 185

McConnell, S. (1981) Theories for Planning, London: Heinemann.

• Planning theory needs to be prescriptive as well as explanatory. Explanatory theory by itself is insufficient to guide the action inherent in the activity of planning. Prescriptive theory is insufficient if it is divorced from related explanatory theory which explains the phenomenon the future of which is being planned. Thus planning theory needs both explanatory and prescriptive components. xiii-xiv
• Because planning practice is dependent on the sanction of those with political power at each level of government with a responsibility for planning, planning theory must be related to political theory if it is to relate to practice. xiv
• Because planners and politicians are concerned with a kind of decision-making which affects the well-being of others - it is an activity with ethical aspects, and for this reason planning theorizing should be moderated by ethical reasoning. xiv
• It is believed that theoretical statements for planning should be 'tested' for: falsifiability, responsiveness, justice, and potential effectiveness. xiv
• more interested in the contexts and the processes of planning and decision-making than with the plans. 2
• planning is a political activity which changes its nature under different political systems and in accordance with different ideologies. 7
• Social theorists, not least those with Marxian leanings, are very critical of approaches to theory which do not include consideration of who decides, who benefits, and who loses as a result of action based on different theories. 13
• Leonardo da Vinci warned that those who practice before they have learned the theory resemble sailors who go to sea without a rudder. 13
• ethical and political theories are held to have a direct relationship with theories for planning. 2
• It will be claimed by man that revolutionary praxis is for politicians and not for planners: that planners have neither the power nor the authority to prescribe fundamental changes in society, except in their private, away from work, existence. 25
• Positivism has been explained as an attempt to systematize human life upon the basis of such knowledge as is available, and is thus said to be based on positive and certain knowledge as opposed to imaginary knowledge. 26
• Auguste Comte (1789-1857) related the workings of human society to animal life and to chemistry, emphasizing the systemic connectivity between phenomena. Comte rejected the economics of his day as unscientific because it abstracted 'wealth' from its social context and therefore the nature of economic activity was stripped of its political and social contexts and connections. 26
• Pragmatism, like the word 'practical', derives from the Greek word pragma which means action. 27
• "genuine democracy cannot be achieved in America without some greater economic, social and political equality and that this requires initially a concerted attack on poverty and segregation." (Gans) 31
• "planning is inside the political system, and, hence, a growing political force in itself. I would wish it to use its growing power toward assuring that the goods, services and facilities supplied are sufficiently diverse to satisfy even the smallest minority's wants." (Webber) 32
• the Marxian approach is concerned with the influence of productive agencies in the historical evolution of society and with class conflict. 32
• In Aristotle's usage 'dialectic' referred to the mental activity related to examination of the presuppositions lying at the back of sciences. 32
• In the Hegelian sense, which influenced Marx, the word 'dialectic' has been said to refer to the intellectual process whereby the inadequacy of popular conceptions is exposed. 32
• In dialectical logic, contradictions have been explained 'as fruitful collisions of ideas from which a higher truth may be reached by way of synthesis.' 32 (BIB)
• The principle meaning of dialectic is that thought develops in a way characterized by the 'dialectical triad': thesis, antithesis, synthesis. The idea is that each thesis has its weaker aspects. This an antithesis is developed to this thesis and to related theses, or to the social actions based on these theses. In the end the desire for recognition by exponents of each thesis and each antithesis will result in the creation of a new idea, a synthesis, which retains some of the virtues of these theses and antitheses, without their weaknesses or limitations. However each synthesis has, in turn, the characteristics of a thesis to which people will develop antitheses. Thus proceeds the evolution of ideas and the social actions related to these ideas. 33
• [Marx] the mode pf production in material life determines the character of the social and political processes of life; and sooner or later the material forces of production come into conflict with the existing relations of production. 34
• 'the materialistic conception of history starts with the proposition that the production of the means to support human life, and next to production, the exchange of things produced, is the basis of all social structure.' 34 (Engel)
• 'And if freedom is lost, everything is lost, including "planning". For why should plans for the welfare of people be carried out if the people have no power to enforce them? ... If we plan too much, if we give too much power to the state, then freedom will be lost, and that will be the end of planning." (Popper) 42
• 'The traditional view of scientific method had the following stages in the following order each giving rise to the next: 1, observation and experiment; 2, inductive generalization; 3, hypothesis; 4, attempted verification of hypothesis; 5, proof or disproof; 6, knowledge. (Magee)
• Land-use planning is based on the normative theory that the future development of land uses and their associated activities should be in accordance with a plan which has regard to environmental, physical, social, and economic considerations. 71
• 'Fundamentally, the land use plan as a part of an overall plan embodies a proposal as to how land should be used as expansion and renewal proceed in the future.' (Chapin) 73
• Political theory is a systematic thinking about the purposes of government and power relationships. 104
• Because the elected representatives of the people in fact cannot represent equally the interests of all groups, especially the minority groups, in a large and heterogenous area, it is now accepted that it is in the interest of the people most effected by urban planning if they can share in the whole planning process from the early stage of identification of problems to the stage of choice of solutions and the means of implementation. 113
• Public participatory theories arising from the model of populist democracy give people the right to participate in decision-making relating to planning matters in so far as they may be directly or indirectly affected by such decisions. 113
• pluralism is a grand term for the age-old game in which powerful groups in a society maneuver to get what they want through a bargaining or trade-off process. But in the end, as with representative democracy, it is the groups with the most power which succeed. 114
• 'Rousseau claims that the general will in action is sovereignty and since the general will emanates from the community as a whole, so sovereignty must reside in the community as a whole. He argues that sovereignty cannot be surrendered, or delegated to any one person or group of people. It cannot be exercised at all through elected representatives.' (Thomson) 115
• Each decade brings change in attitudes. It can be argued that before the mid-1960s planners in the USA tended to believe in consensus more than they did after the student and race upheavals of the later 1960s. Participation was then perceived as a way to resolve conflict. However participation as a way of arriving at decisions in any community can only replace decision-making by those in power in those in power permit it, or have to permit it as a condition of remaining in power. 117
• In the Marxian approach the class conflicts in capitalists societies are stressed and are seen as the condition or fuel for social change, finally evolving in a harmonious form of society. Such a view has elements of Idealism and Utopianism. 118
• 'the problem is in convincing enough people, both those in power and ordinary citizens, that peaceful relations with others provide the most satisfying and beneficial ways of life and are worth striving for, even when immediate, personal sacrifices are necessary (e.g. relinquishing power, reducing material gains, or admitting and attempting to correct unjustified actions). Also, these persons must realize that these kinds of relations can be achieved'. (Nye) 118
• if the norm of participation is not widespread for one reason or another, the fostering of participation will not in itself create a participatory democracy. 121
• The ideology of public participation as it is being developed in theory and practice is then becoming the ideology of opposition to the status quo, and this is inevitably leading to more and more reluctance to accede to claim for public participation. ... Public participation...will exist only on terms acceptable to the governing elite, i.e. that its function is to aid and assist the operation and management of government and not to challenge or 'disrupt' it.' 124 (McAuslan)
• 'The State is differentiated from other associations by its universal jurisdiction, its negative function, and the spacial character of law in being backed by force and having special authority. ...we may therefore define the State as an association designed primarily to maintain order and security, exercising universal jurisdiction within territorial boundaries, by mean of law backed by force and recognized as having sovereign authority. 126 (Raphael)
• Has every person in the locality to be planned been given a reasonable opportunity: (a) at the initial stage of the planning process to identify their needs and aspirations, and thus their perception of the problems? (b) to generate their proposals or conjectural solutions? (their tentative theories)? (c ) to register their perception of the errors or problems in the first et of alternative proposals which have been developed by the planners after stage (b)? (d) to record their choice as between the preferred alternatives? (e) to offer their views as to the means and the program of implementation. 131
• Has every person, wherever he or she lives in the region, but who visits the area regularly, and who will be directly affected by the proposals , been given a reasonable opportunity to be involved in the decision-making process. 132
• we cannot expect to find in our society a simple set of moral concepts, a share interpretation of the vocabulary. Conceptual conflict is endemic. ... Each of us therefore has to choose both with whom we wish to be morally bound and by what ends, rules and virtues we wish to be guided. ... In choosing to regarding this end or that highly I make certain moral relationships with some other people, and other moral relationships with others impossible. ... I must choose between alternative forms of social and moral practice... (MacIntyre) 146
• The primary aim of planning for justice is that planning decisions should be biased towards the greatest benefit of the least advantaged: there should be positive discrimination in favor of the most disadvantaged. A second aim is that any inequality in the distribution or allocation of resources should only be allowed when it is t the benefit of the least advantaged. There are two conditions in such an aim. First, that any one person's liberty be restricted only in the interest of ensuring the freedom for others to enjoy their well-being or to have their opportunities for a 'better' life and environment protected; and, secondly, that any scarce resource be safeguarded for future generations.
• Justice in this context is defined as fairness in the distribution or the allocation of whatever spatial resources and other welfare benefits are at the 'command' of the planning system. It is argued that in the event of there being a conflict between the objectives of responsiveness and the objectives of justice in decision-making, the latter should prevail. 155
• 'Justice, it is often said, is an idea and an ideal. Like law and morality, it rests on the tension and contradiction between what is and what at least some men think ought to be. It represents or presupposes a criticism of an existing reality or state of affairs allegedly in the light of principles or an idea-end state; it is in that sense said to be both transcendent and a guide to action and evaluation.' (Kamenka) 156
• From the 'Left Wing' viewpoint such savings are seen as capitalist accumulation which distinguish people and classes from each other, and which are especially divisive when inherited from one generation to another. 158
• [United Nations Organization Article No. 29] Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible. In the exercise in his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and for meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society. 163
• The United Nations Research Institute for Social Development in 1966 and 1970 listed nine basic components of social well-being: nutrition; shelter; health; education; leisure; security of person and human rights; stability in economic and social senses; physical environment with ecological and aesthetic care of resources; surplus income, i.e. additional to satisfaction of basic need. 166 (Coates)
• 'in order to treat all persons equally, to provide genuine equality of opportunity, society must give more attention to those with fewer native assets as to those born into the less favorable social positions. The idea is to redress the bias of contingencies in the direction of equality.' 170 (Rawls)
• There is a need for a socialism that would increase domestic ownership, and that would attack inequality and alienation by giving to every household, as far as scarcity and environmental prudence allow, the fullest control of the resources it can use.
• First Principle Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all. Second principle Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged...to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, consistent with the just savings principle.' (Rawls) 175
• Rawls's idea of 'just saving' is that there is a duty on one generation to uphold institutions and resources generally for future generations, including each nation's heritage. 178
• 'Since the market is not suited to meet the claims of needs, these should be met by a separate arrangement. Whether the principles of justice are satisfied, then, turns on whether the total income of the least advantaged (wages plus transfers) is such s to maximize their long-run expectations (consistent with the constraints of equal liberty and fair equality of opportunity).' 185 (Rawls)
• Policy-making within and between levels of government is fragmented in every country of the world. 188

Wilkie, M. Colonials, Marginals and Immigrants: Contributions to a Theory of Ethnic Stratefication.

• ethnic groups are regarded as those socially differentiated by race, nationality, language, religion or by some recognizable cultural distinction. 73
• Assimilation s best regarded, not as a process of becoming socially indistinguishable from the mainstream groups in urban industrial society, but as accepting that society as the home base, the prime focus of allegiance and the place where personal ambitions are formed, achieved and enjoyed. 88

Girvan, N. (1975) Conference on an Appraisal of the Relationship Between Agricultural Development and Industrialization in Africa and Asia, Dakar: United Nations African Institute for Economic Development and Planning.

• for industrial growth to begin, and to proceed smoothly in a closed economic system, agricultural workers must feed not only themselves but also the growing proportion of the total labor force employed in industry; thus technical conditions must be such as to bring about a rise in labor productivity in agriculture while institutional conditions ensure that the agricultural workers do not directly consume their increased food production per person and the agricultural food surplus is transferred to industry. 2
• many of the techniques used in raising agricultural productivity themselves require manufactured inputs, such as more and better agricultural implements, machinery, fertilizer and building materials. 3